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A 

GRAMMAR 

OF THE 

| ICELANDIC 

OR 

OLD NORSE TONGUE 

TRANSLATED FROM THE SWEDISH 

OF 

ERASMUS RASH 

BY 

GEORGE WEBBE DASENT M. A. 



L 0-IV DON. 



WILLIAMS «fc MORGAT£ 

14 HENRIETTA -STREET. COVENT- GARDEN. 



1843. 



IV TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 

hardly know; blind Titans, exhibiting superhuman energy, 
doing- a great deal of work, but doing it, as the blind 
are like to do, ill. 

In no fact of our existence does this carelessness 
for the Past show itself more strongly than in our 
Language; we have mutilated, and in some respects 
wellnigh forgotten, the speech of our ancestors, and 
have got instead a monstrous mosaic, a patchwork of 
various tongues which we have picked up and pieced 
together as we went along. 

Some one will exclaim, that the anomalous condi- 
tion of our Language is no fault of the present Age, 
that it has only succeded to sins entailed on it by those 
that came before , and that it adds very little to the 
store of mutilation, nay strives hard in many ways to 
bring about a purer state of things. To this it may be 
answered, that the present Age is responsible for the 
sins of those that preceded it, if it can atone for them 
and will not; no one will deny that this is a case where 
the entail might be docked with the greatest advantage; 
as to its adding very little to . the mutilation , any one 
who has the heart to read Novels, Annuals , and a cer- 
tain class of Periodicals, must be aware that these are 



TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. V 

just so many mints for forging base and barbarous 
words, some of which are continually becoming* current 
in the mouths of those who have not taste enough to 
distinguish gold from brassy and as to the efforts of the 
Age to bring about a better state of things, they are, 
and will remain as good as useless so long as the main 
remedy is neglected. 

In good truth it seems hopeless to expect that 
Englishmen should ever get to understand their native 
tongue till they are taught it, and by teaching I mean, 
till they study its structure and literature, just as they 
study the structure and literature of any other language 
of which they are wholly ignorant. Hitherto on the 
contrary it seems to have been assumed as granted that 
we take in our mother's tongue along with their milk ; 
our instruction in English rarely reaches beyond the 
nursery, or if continued is conveyed to us under the 
dreary auspices of Lindley Murray. 

To me it seems plain that such learning by suction 
is very unfitting; it is not too much to demand that 
the People of England be taught English; that at any 
rate there should be found in all Public Schools and 
Universities, men sufficiently acquainted with their native 



VI TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 

tongue from its rise till the present day to instruct our 
youth in the speech and Literature of their country. 
To some this may seem an easy task, if it be so easy 
I would it were done, but perhaps it is harder than 
many think; in my opinion a man who could teach 
English with comfort to himself and profit to his hear- 
ers — a man in short who will earnestly do his days- 
work and not make a job of it — should have a tho- 
rough knowledge of Anglo Saxon , and Anglo Norman, 
of our Old, Middle, and New English, beside a consid- 
erable proficiency in the Old Norse, and early German 
tongues. There are men in England capable of doing 
this, but as yet they are few and far between. 

But though the sum of our English instruction 
amounts to zero, or less, there are some signs which 
show that the night of our forgetfulness is far spent, 
and the dawn at hand $ by the praiseworthy efforts of 
isolated students the results worked out in the School 
of German Philology founded by Grimm are becoming 
more and more known among us. The Anglo Saxon 
Grammar of the Author of this work has been excel- 
lently translated by Mr. Thorpe, and has tended not a 
little towards awakening a taste for that tongue long so 



TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. VII 

shamefully neglected $ a livelier interest is taken in re- 
prints of our Old English Authors 5 and it may not 
perhaps be too much to expect that we shall soon have 
a Professor of English in the University of Oxford. 
Should the present Translation be instrumental in fur- 
thering this good work, the pains spent on it will be 
amply repaid 5 putting aside the study of Old Norse for 
the sake of its magnificent Literature, and considering 
it merely as an accessory help for the English student, 
we shall find it of immense advantage, not only in tra- 
cing the rise of words and idioms, but still more in 
clearing up many dark points in our early History 5 in 
fact so highly do I value it in this respect, that I 
cannot imagine it possible to write a satisfactory His- 
tory of the Anglo Saxon Period without a thorough 
knowledge of the Old Norse Literature. 

Before I close I wish to add a few words on my 
Translation; it is, I hope, a faithful rendering of Rask's 
more complete Icelandic Grammar, which he published 
at Stockholm in 1818 under the Title „Anvisning till 
Islandskan eller Nordiska Fornspraket, af Erasmus Chris- 
tian Rask. Fran Danskan ofversatt och omarbetad af 
Forfattaren." I have been induced to pass over the 



VIII TRANSLATORS PREFACE. 

Author's Preface, partly because the information con- 
tained in it has been already made known to the En- 
glish reader in the Preface to the Author's Anglo Saxon 
Grammar, partly because many references are made in 
it to works since superseded by the progress of Old 
Norse Philology. I may mention that the short Praxis 
appended is of my own selection, and I hope it may 
prove useful to beginners in the Old Norse. 
Homburg: vor der Hohe, 
August 7 th 1845. 



FIRST PART. 

The System of the Alphabet. 



CHAPTER I. 

On the forms of the Letters, 

Runes. 

1. The art of writing was already known in the North 
long before the introduction of Christianity; the characters 
then in use are called Runes (run pi. riinir, old runar). They 
were in the oldest times only 16 in number, the forms names 
and power of which may be seen in Table A. 

It is easy to see that all the names are chosen with re- 
ference to the forms; in the case of fe {cattle) for instance 
horns were thought of; in that of ur {rain) pouring showers; 
in that of furs {a giant) a fat belly; in that of 6s {the mouth 
of a river), streaming water; etc. 

2. Our forefathers kept far into the christian times the 
old characters in inscriptions on gravestones staves and calen- 
dars, for which they were far more fit than the Roman letters, 
even then already much distorted by the monks and tricked 
out with many curves. In the mean time their number was 
increased by the pricked Runes (Tab. B.), which take the 
name of pricked ur, J)urs, etc. For C, Q, X, and Z, peculiar 

1 



I RUNES 

characters were first found out in later times, for the sake of 
making the Runic alphabet agree entirely with the Latin. 
These are therefore quite spurious, and are never met with in 
any old inscription. 

3. Of the Runic orthography it is especially to be remar- 
ked, that in the oldest period it never doubled any letter; that 
the words were commonly separated by one, sometimes two 
points; that the arrangement of the lines was irregular and 
must be found out by the context; that the Runic charac- 
ters were often written reversely from right to left; and that some 
letters in remote places and in different times seem to have had 
different meanings; which is especially the case with the vowels, 
though here a difference of Dialect may have had some in- 
fluence. In Books it seems Runes were never used in these 
old times, because there was then a want of suitable writing 
materials. Two famous variations are the Helsing and Staf- 
karls Runes: the former are distinguished by the want of the 
down stroke, only the cross stroke being left; the latter by a 
very long down stroke, on which several Runes are written 
by means of their proper cross strokes under one another. 

4. The antiquity of Runes has indeed been denied by many 
learned men, but yet seems thoroughly credible for the follow- 
ing reasons. 

At the introduction of Christianity and for some time after 
they were in general use over the whole North, in Sweden, 
Denmark, Norway, and Iceland, and we have demonstrably 
heathen runic stones, on which Thor is invoked; but if they 
were invented by the monks for any secie- use, their employ- 
ment on gravestones would be against this view; if on the 
other hand they had been framed by others after the Latin or 
Greek alphabet , for the sake of forming a national system of 
writing, it would have been impossible that they should have 
been spread so far in so short a time, and besides we should 
not miss so many needful letters among them. At the same time 
they are spoken of so often in the oldest Sagas as signs for 
writing in the heathen times, e. g. in Eigla on the charmed stake 
set up against King Eric Blodyxa, in Grettla, and many others; 



RUNES 



nay in songs which are manifestly heathen, as Rigsmal, 
Sigurdrivomal , Havamal, Skirner's Journey, where some of 
them are even mentioned by name, as Jnirs, nau6; that all 
doubt must fall away; in the Voluspa itself it is said Str. 20. 

Skaro a ski'di. They scored on the tablet 

Skuld hina JriSjo. Skuld as the third, (i. e. Noma.) 

That they were sometimes used of old in Sorcery is rather 
a reason for, than an objection against, their high antiquity. 
All old writers assign with one voice their introduction into 
the North to Odin; and this is supported by the fact that by 
far the most Runic stones are found in Sweden, especially in 
the neighbourhood about Upsala, which was the headseat of 
the old worship of Odin. The Runes have great likeness 
to the very oldest Greek alphabet, and this coincides comple- 
tely with the old story of our forefathers having flitted hither 
from the country north of the Black Sea; it is also known from 
Ovid that the dwellers in those regions were already at the 
birth of Christ in possession of the art of writing. 

5. Of Runes, their use, age, and the like, many Icelanders 
have written treatises; as Olaf Thordson H vita ska Id, in 
an appendix to the Skalda. Bjorn of Skardsa, John Gud- 
mundson the learned, Rugman, John Olafson of Grun- 
nawick in his Runologia; Eggert Olafson has also treated 
this subject; but of all these the first only has been printed. 
Vorm, Abraham son, Ver el ius, Celsius, and several Danes 
and Swedes have made themselves renowned by collecting and 
explaining Runic stones, but at the same time have seldom paid 
attention to the language, grammar and orthography. Again 
many learned antiquarians of both these nations have, by mu- 
tual abuse, by which they supplied the want of enquiry, reason 
and knowledge, deprived their works on Runes of almost all 
interest and worth, stifled the truth, and finally awakened 
general disgust for the subject itself. 



COMMON 



Common Letters. 



6. The Latin Alphabet was introduced into the North by 
two different hands, the Anglo Saxons and the Germans; the 
German monkstyle obtained the preference , though with the 
retention of some Anglo Saxon characters, particularly the two 
f) and 5, besides the framing of manifold abbreviations, hence 
arose a peculiar Scandinavian Blackletter, in which ^E was 
kept in the Latin form , was written as o . with a stroke 
through it (see Tab. F,) which still remains in Dansk. A was 
not met with, or was written as a double a contracted (Tab. F.) 
which is also found in many printed Icelandic books, and 
which Baden, Abrahamson, and others have tried to introduce 
again into Dansk; just as the Germans also have fused fs, 
ch and tz, into so many separate forms. 

7. Such was the arrangement of the alphabet over the 
whole North: and thus we find it in all old Swedish laws 
and deeds, till nearly about the time of the Reformation the 
German w, a, and 6 were brought in, and along with these was 
formed a new a; besides these changes |) and S w r ere first resolved 
into th and dh, and afterwards vanished altogether out of both 
speech and writing *.) Among the Icelanders as among other 
European Nations, the true old Latin characters have begun 
very much in later times to drive out the blackletter, and all 



* As an example of this I may quote the beginning of the West- 
gothland Laws according to the oldest codex in the Royal Library 
(at Stockholm), it comes, if the accentuation be preserved, very 
near to the Icelandic. "Kryster aer fyrst i laghum varum i {)a 
aer cristnse var , oc allir cristnir konongaer, bcendaer, oc allir 
bocarlser, biscupaer oc allir boclaerSir insen. VarJ)aer barn til 
kirkju boret oe be|)iz cristini, J)a seal fa{)ir ok moSer fa guft- 
faefmr oe guSmof)or oc salt oc vatn, f)set seal baerae til kirkju, 
{>a seal a prest kallaa, han seal a kirkjuboli boaa." 

The same alphabet (with 5) is also used in the addition to 
this cod.; which however otherwise betrays a much later hand. 



LETTERS 



good Editions of old Poetry, Sagas, Laws etc., are printed in 
Roman type. J) and se have been all along retained, 6 is now 
often written with two strokes or points over it, (but never 
o), 5 has been laid aside since the Reformation, and supplied 
by f) or d, th/ough its sound is still left in daily talk 
among the Icelanders, and is strictly separate from that of 
either of the Letters mentioned above. Even in Editions of old 
Sagas it has been usually neglected, because the Printing Offices 
had no proper type for the purpose. In Njala and the late 
Stockholm Edition of Sturluson's Edda and the Skalda it is 
carefully preserved. 

8. The Icelandic Alphabet now in use is therefore the 
following : 



a a 


g 


ge 


n 


enn 


u u 


b be 


h 


ha 





6 


v vaff 


(c se) 


i 


i 


P 


pe 


x ex 


d de 


J 


jo5 


(q 


ku) 


y y 


8 stungit de 


k 


ka 


r 


err 


z seta 


e e 


1 


ell 


s 


efs 


J) {>orn 


f eff 


m 


emm 


t 


te 


as a3 (aj) 
6 6 



9. Olaf Thordson Hvitaskald in the appendix to the 
Skalda, John 1 a f s o n of Grunnawick in his Islenzka retriltan ; 
and also Eggert Olafson, under the title: "Nockrar ore- 
gluligar reglur um j>aS hvornveg rett eigi a5 bokstafa J)a mi 
lifandi fslendsku tungu"— have written on the Icelandic ortho- 
graphy with this alphabet, of which treatises only the first 
named has been printed. 



CHAPTER II. 
Of Pronunciation. 

10. The Icelandic Pronunciation is in (he highest degree 
regular , and corresponds exactly to the system of spelling, 
which is however arranged after a peculiar manner, the most 
suitable certainly that could have been invented for this lang- 
uage, but wholely differing from the present Swedish method. 

Vowels. 

11. Every vowel has two sounds, the one simple and soft, 
the other hard and diphthongic, or as it were in composition 
with some soft consonant, and commonly distinguished by a 
stroke or accent over the letter. Some vowels have two such 
mixed sounds, the one formed of v, the other of^". 

12. A is sounded therefore 1. like a Swedish a. e. g. saga, 
a tale, danska the dansk tongue , at fara to fare , baka to 
bake etc.; 2. with a stroke over it, like av or au (not Germ. 
au); e. g. fra (read frav) from, tap (taup) pith, strength, drattr 
(drautt'r) drawing. 

13. This a has already in old writers begun to take the 
sound of a (Engl, o), particularly in cases where it followed 
after v, in order to aroid the hard sound vav; in these cases 
therefore o is often written in its stead by old writers, and al- 
ways by the new: but that in the oldest times it really had 
the sound a (av) appears partly from the rhyme, e. g. in Stur- 
lu son's Hattalykill, 

Slikt er sva It is so 

Siklingr a That a king hath etc. 

and in Skalda 2. 

Hareks liSar varu. Hareks men were etc., 

partly from derived words or forms, where it is invariably, like 

a broken into ce. e. g. varu or voru they were, in the conj. 

vwri, never like o into y. It is also written a in many 



VOWELS 7 

M. S. (e. g. in the excellent cod. No. 7. in the Royal Libr. at 
Stockholm.) If in editing old works we were to mark it as 
a, we should at once be able, without changing the orthography, 
to express its original as well as its later and softer pro- 
nunciation; e. g. van (von) hope, vagr (vogr) an inlet, va (vo) 
fought , qvan (qvon) (also qvaen) a wife , woman , (quean) 
hanum (honuin) to him, man, pi. manum (afterwards mun-um) 
v. etc. 



14. To a belongs also the diphthong ee, which is pro- 
nounced like aj or aj; e. g. rseSa, to talk, aetla to mean. 

15. E is sounded 1. alone like a or high e in the Swed. 
word engel (French e in apres etc. English e in fellow or 
ai in hair), e. g. herrar lords, flest most, elska to love, verk 
work, hestr horse, her army. It has 2. the lower sound of 
e in the Swed. lefva , veta, (Ft. e) always before the sound 
of i or j; ei must by no means therefore be pronounced like 
German ei (which the Icelanders would write m) but as the 
low e in seg, fel etc.'; with an aftersound ofj; e.g. bein bone, 
eit owe, seigr sfo^, so also nei, nay, no, etc. 

16. E takes the same low or deep sound before gi and 
gj, since g is then pronounced as j, e g degi (read deji) dat. 
of dagr day, £egja (J>ei-ja) to be silent, vegir (vejir) pi. of 
vegr (vag'r) a way etc, which are therefore often found written 
deigi, J>eigia, veigir etc., how r ever wrongly according to origin, 
and needlessly according to the simple rule. Some indeed assert 
that we should read vajir, etc., where the root has the sound 
of a; if this be right I dare not decide, but it is not general. 

17. With v E forms no diphthong, but on the other hand 
one with j before it; this is commonly written e (or ie), and 
is sounded 1. as je, namely when it is long, viz at the end 
of a syllable, or before a simple consonant; e. g. tre , tree, 
vel guile, mer to me, bref letter, lek played, gret wept, rena 
to cease', so also in the derived forms tres (Gen. of tre) etc., 
read trje, vjel, etc. 2. as jd when it has a short and hard 
tone, i. e. before a double conson. or a position, e. g. rettr 
right, helt held, fell, fell, fretta to spy out', so also her here. 



8 VOWELS 

and some words , which in old writers seem to have had a 
simple e (a), e. g. ek. I. eta to eat, el a hail-or snow-storm'. 
and in the modern J)ena to serve; (read rjiiltV hjalt) etc. 

18. E has commonly the same high sound (jd) after k and 
g, though the accent in usually left out in these cases; e. g. 
ker. jar.; kem / come, gera to make, geld I pay , get can, 
(v); read kjar, kjam, gjara, etc., with a hard k or g and soft 
j as in Dansk). But ei is an exception (by rule. 15.) e. g. geit 
shegoat, leipr a thole, and the word gefa to give, in which e 
has the deep sound, for which reason it has been changed 
into i in Dansk and Swedish. 

19. The Diphthong e is thus in its nature opposed to the 
others, since its vowel follows its consonant, and seems there- 
fore most fitly written with an inverted accent, which has been 
also adopted by the Icelandic Literary Society: according to 
this it would be most correct to write tre, vel, mer, lek, gret, 
rettr, helt, fell, fretta, her, el etc., but in old M.S. (e. g. the 
abovementioned cod. No. 7. 4to in the Royal Libr. Stockholm), 
and in old printed Books it is written e, or often as simple e 
without any accent, which last however is wrong and mislea- 
ding. By this would be confounded together; 

vd well and vel guile. leSr leather and le*d> borrowed. 

her army » her here. seSr feeds v. » seSr custom. 

el feeds » el hailstorm, iletta to cleave » fletta toplait. 

fell fells (v.) » fell fell. let dissuades » let left. v. 

lek leaks (v.) » lek played (v). setti placed » setti seventh. 
ver defends (v.) » ver we. letti dissuaded » letti stopped. 

20. I is pronounced 1. nearly as in the Swedish words 
vild, visst, which sound especially when it is long seems to 
approach that of the deep e, e. g. at vilja to will, viss certain, 
vita to know, lifa, to live, himin heaven, haskaligr dangerous, 
missir loss, landi landsman; e is therefore often found in its 
stead especially in terminations, e. g. haskalegr, misser, lande 
etc., which is however wrong by the simple rule that e by 
itself sounds like a: 2. with a stroke over it, as in the Swed. 
word fri, vis, Engl, free, e. g. hT life, rikr rich, brixl abuse. 



VOWELS. 9 

21. Besides this i when it comes before another vowel is 
always taken as the conson. j, which in old times was as little 
distinguished from the vowel i as v from u; but since it has 
been agreed in all good editions to separate these last, it seem 
that we have the same reason to exercise the same right towards 
the first. The Icelandic Society for the Diffusion of Knowledge, 
and the so called Smabokafelag (Tract Society), have carried 
this distinction into execution, and caused to be printed 
sjon sight j bjarga to help, bjork birch, gjora to do, byrja to 
begin, fylgja to follow, etc. and this I mean to follow through- 
out in this work, because it gives the spelling without any 
essential change much greater clearness and perspicuity; at 
the beginning of words, e. g. jor5 earth, jam iron, it has al- 
ready long been in general use, because it there seems to be 
a little harder. 

22. After the vowel e indeed i is also properly a cons.; 
but since e in this connection loses its common sound of d, 
and i also seems almost fused along with it into one sound, 
which comes near to the long or broad e, and since the ton- 
gue has other diphthongs of the same kind (au, ey) which it 
is impossible to avoid; it seems best to retain ei as a Diph- 
thong, which indeed no one has attempted to change. 

23. is pronounced 1. like the Swed. a (Engl, o), or as 
the high in Swed. o in bort, Tcomma (the Russian and Finnish o), 
e. g. opinn open (o-pin), orka to be able, hola cavern, spor. 
traces footsteps ; 2. with an accent it takes a deep and broad 
sound, almost like ov, e. g. ro rest, rot root, goSr good, dottir 
daughter, otti and ogn fright 

24. U is sounded 1. almost like deep Swed. 6 in hog, rok 
or German u, e. g. hugr mind, thought, sumar summer, stu- 
Sull, term for the subordinate letters in alliterative verse, urt 
wort, unna to grant. O is therefore often found instead of u, 
especially in endings, e. g. herod* for heruS pi. of heraS, dis- 
trict, sk^onum Dat. pi. def. of sk^ cloud, orvonum the same 
of or arrow , dryckjor drinkingbouts ; which is however 
wrong because the Iceland, o has its own fixed, and much 



10 VOWELS 

higher sound : the word guS god is pronounced nearly as gv65 
or gviiS: 2. with an accent over it, like the common u in 
Swedish and Dansk, (French ou Engl, oo); but this sound is 
again double as in Swedish: viz, in some cases broad al- 
most like uv, e. g. hus house, ut out, dukr cloth (duck), ungr 
young, udi moisture, hufa cap, hood; in other words as the Swed. 
a in dubbel, ung, the Dansk in gudelig, konst etc. (Engl, young) 
with no aftersound of v, e. g. hun s/*e, puki goblin, (Puck), 
kuga fo force. If we were to write this w, the sound would 
be much more exactly expressed, and some words quite sepa- 
rate in origin pronunciation and meaning would be disting- 
uished; thus e.g. dufa dove, kuga, puki, and hun she, but 
hun in pi. hunar bearcubs. This it seems to occur especially 
before f, g, and k. In old M. S. no distinction is made between 
u and v, but they are now entirely separate in general use. 

25. Y, is now sounded exactly like i, and has therefore 
1. a sound which is very near deep e; e. g. fyrir for, yftr 
your, gyftingr a jew; 2. like long i, e. g. b^Sr he bids, fKgr 
he flies. It is therefore merely an etymological sign which is 
used when the sound i comes from o, w, and the sound i 
from jo, ju, or u, and in some few Primitives, where the other 
kindred tongues have y or o; e. g. myrkr murk, syster sister, 
Swed. syster, Dansk soster etc. The name of the letter how- 
ever is pronounced altogether as it is in Swed. and Dansk.* 



* This letter is found, in consequence of its sound, interchanged 
with i in numerous cases; e. g. fyrir and firir; some moderns 
have made it a rule to write y where the sound i comes from 
two other letters , and accordingly where the Primitive has ja,jd, 
etc. But that this rule is false is proved by the universal custom 
of old writers; we never find among them dyrfast, byrni, mySi, 
etc., but dirfast to be venturesome; from djarfr daring, birni 
dat. of bjorn bear, mifti dat. of mj65r mead. By the same 
rule we should also write vytum for vitura we know, from 
veit, and giftia for gySja goddess from gufi, because ei is a 
diphthong but a a simple vowel. Just as wrong is y for i 
e. g. ryki for riki and the like. 



VOWELS It 

26. The Diphthong ey has consequently entirely the same 
sound as ex, and is used only where the Prim, has au, ju, 

jo, or the kindred tongues o, e. g. deyfta to kill, from dauftr, 
dead, geyma to keep, from gaumr care, hey hay, (Swed. ho,) 
it is therefore often interchanged in careless writing with ei. 

27. 6 has the sound of high b in the Swed. dorr, smbr, 
e.g. gjora is sounded as theDansk#/6>r^ stoSull milking place. 

28. The Diphthong of b is au, which is pron. like a broad 
b, or nearly as of e. g. auga eye, rauSr red, autt lonely (read 
ojga, rqjdr, ojtt,) for which sake some very late writers have 
wished to change it into by. and write oyga, royfrr, etc. 

29. 6 was adopted late by the Northmen: In old times au 
or av was written for this letter also, and this custom has been 
carried on till the latest times by many, especially in those 
cases, where b is derived from a. In order to remedy the 
confusion thus occasioned it has been finally determined to 
use av on^ly for the vowel b, and au onejly as the diph- 
thong; e. g. favour or foSur ace. s. of faSir father; favr or 
for, a journey, faring from fara to fare. But in order to read 
old books , in which this distinction is not observed , it is 
needful to know the word before hand; as as a small help 
it may however be remarked that the sound is always simple 
b, where the Prim, has simple a\ and always the dipthongic 
sound au, where the Prim, has a; e.g. bragor « tfrocA: pi. brogd, 
whether it be spelt bravgS or hraugS; but fang wrestling, pi. 
faung, though it be sometimes written favng. 

30. The strokes over the vowels are thus by no means 
signs of tone, since the simple vowels in the word as often 
have the tone, and a tone altogether the same, e. g. blasa to 
turn toward, and blasa to blow, atti heated (v), and aiti had, 
owned, have exactly the same tone. Nor does this stroke at 
all denote the prosodiacal length of the vowels, for the simple 
are often long, and the diphthongic short, or quite toneless 
e.g. hetja hero, vel well, mattr meat, vesa3ll vile, amattliga 
sadly, sexaeringr, a sixoared {boat), but it denotes an addition 
or essential alteration in the sound itself. 



1 2 CONSONANTS 

31. The same method of marking the accent has not been 
always used; at one time two dots were placed instead of 
the accent (see Tab. D.), out of which ignorant compositors 
(e. g. in Resen's Edition of Sturlusons Edda) afterwards made 
a, b, for a, 6, etc. Others placed besides a single dot over 
the simple vowels in order to make the distinction more plain 
(Tab. E.). Later still the vowels themselves were doubled, yet 
so as to fuse them as far as possible into a single form; as 
may be seen in Tab. F. But of these signs ij, and w, together 
with the double o and y, as well as those with double dots 
are all most probably of the 16t& or 17t& century, and now 
happily quite laid aside, the old simple system of spelling 
having been again generally adopted. 



Consonants. 

32. C is used by old writers indiscriminately with k, espe- 
cially at the end of monosyllables , e. g. calla to call, scip ship, 
dryccr drink, mjoc much, ec I, oc and, mic me-, for kalla, 
skip, drickr or drykkr, mjok or mj 6g, ek or eg, ok or og, mik 
or mig. It is now used only in ck for kk; e. g. plocka to 
pluck, {)6ck thank, staekka to increase. But many write kk, 
plokka, |)dkk, staekka etc., and thus shut c entirely out of the 
language, a custom which is already old though not general. 

33. D is pronounced as the hard Swed. and Germ, d, e. g. 
dagr day, bardagi battle, halda to hold, hond hand, oddr, 
'point', this sound is found in the beginning of words and 
syllables, and at the end of syllables after /, n. m, and d, 

34. 8 is an aspirated d, and has the sound of the soft 
Dansk d at the end of the words med, hvad, etc., which sound 
has vanished entirely out of the modern Swed., but is still 
found in English, as weak th both at the beginning and end 
of words. In the Old Norse tongue it was used at the end of 
syllables after all vowels and r, f, and g, e. g. meS with, is 
pronounced as the Dansk med, goSr good, gerfti did, liffii 



CONSONANTS 13 

lived, bygftr inhabited country, herao" district. In old writers it 
is sometimes found after /, m, e. g. fjdl5i fullness, dreymffi, 
dreamed. 

35. In some old. MS. f) is used for S before vowels within the 
word, e. g. in the Edda and Skalda. In later times 5 has been every 
where replaced by {) or d, the first of these is least confusing, be- 
cause f) with its true hard sound never occurs at the end of a sylla- 
ble, and therefore leaves the reader in doubt only in compound 
words, e. g. ij>r6tt handicraft, art, if>ran repentance, the first should 
be read if)rott, the second iftran; in the words, 6J>ol impatience, 
65ul right of freehold , ddulr freetongued , all the three diff- 
erent sounds are found, if we were to write o{ml, we should 
confound the two first; and w T e chose odul, the two last. When 5 
is expressed by {), it seems that d may with equal right be 
written t; but if d be put for 5 we ought also to use t for f). 
The fittest course therefore is to retain this letter, agreably to 
the nature of the tongue and the constant custom of our 
forefathe rs. 

36. F is pronounced as in Swed., accordingly 1. as hard 
f at the beginning of syllables and before s , e. g. fotr foot, 
ofsi arrogance: 2. as hard v at the end of a word, e. g. haf 
sea, so also before r (ur) as hafr hegoat, arfr heritage, and 
before all vowels in the middle of the word, e. g. hafa to 
have, erfa to inherit, are read exactly as in Swed. If f is 
to be pronounced hard in these cases, it is doubled, e. g. straff, 
straffa, offr or offur, offra, in distinction from ofra to swing, 
which is read avra (ovra). Besides f takes, 3. before I, n, 5, t, 
at the end of a syllable the sound of hard b or bb, e. g. tafia 
table, nafn name, haftJi had, haft had (pt), read tabbla, nabbn 
habbSi, habbt. Some have therefore wished in modern times 
to introduce bl for fl, as abl for afl strength, tabla for tafia etc. 
but as we cannot also write nabn, habSi etc., this only serves 
to destroy an old and simple rule. 4. If another consonant 
especially d or t, follow after fn, the sound becomes mn, e.g. nefna 
to name is pronounced nabna , but imperf. nefndi sounds like 
namndi, and the supine nefnt like namnt, hefnd hamnd, and the like; 
we often therefore find hemnd for hefnd, jamnt (or jamt) for jafnt. 
This pronounciation is general when d follows, but 5. if the 



14 CONSONANTS 

succeeding conson. be t or s, it is pronounced by many as ff't, 
ffs e. g. jafnt, til jafns. 

37. Gis pronounced, 1. generally hard and clear e. g. ganga 
to go, flag clod, dogg dew, regn rain, vagn, wain etc., read gaunga 
flag, dogg, and almost regg-n, vagg-n; not rengn, vangn, accord- 
ing to Swed. Pron. or rejn as in Dansk: in the same way 
borg, berg etc. read borgg or borgg (not borj.); 2. gj and g 
before the weak vowels (see rule 41) are sounded like the 
Dansk gj, or soft g, (not as j or Swed. g in gora, nor as the 
aspirated Germ g) e. g. gefa to give, gaafi gave imp. conj. 
geir spear (Poet.), gildr strong, gjafir gifts, liggja to lie, skuggi 
shade, angi steam, p^ngja purse. This sound is found at 
the beginning of words, and in the middle, when a consonant 
goes before. 3. If a vowel go before and a soft one or 
j come after, it sounds entirely like j, e. g. bogi a bow, 

(read baji) agi chastisement, (read aji or ajji), but in the ace. 
boga, aga, (read baga aga) faegja to smooth (read faija), bag- 
indi troubles, (read bau-jindi). 4. If another consonant follow 
after gn, especially d or t, the sound becomes ngn, e. g lygna 
to become calm, (of storms) is pronounced nearly like ligg'na, 
but the imperf lyngdi is sounded like lingndi or lingdi, and 
the sup. lyngt like lingnt or lingt, so also, rigna, rigndi, rignt, 
to be rained on, etc. 5. but if it be s that follows the sound 
is very nearly gg's, e. g. til gagns (read til gagg's.) 

38. H has always a hard and strong sound even before 
the conson. j, v, I, n, r, e. g. harSr hard, hjarta heart, heri 
(read hjari) hare , hverfa to vanish, hlaSa to lade, hnottr 
bowl, globe, hringr ring. It is sometimes found interchan- 
ged with k, e. g. knifr and hnifr knife, hnottr and knottr. 
ikring and ihn'ng round about, (adverb^ from which two 
separate words were afterwards made in all Northern lan- 
guages. 

39. J has been already spoken of (rule. 21.), I may how- 
ever add here, that as old writers did not distinguish it from 
the vowel i, so also they never wrote it before t, because 
double ii would have been confusing in reading and ugly to 



CONSONANTS 15 

the eye. This sound (ji) however occurs very often in the 
language, e. g. in all pres. conj. of verbs in ja, where only 
a is changed into short i. e. g. byggja to build, setja to 
set, sitja to sit, queSja to hail, berja to slay, to heat, qvelja 
to plague, temja to tame, venja to wean, etc. besides many 
nouns. The inconvenience of not having a proper sign for a 
sound which occurs so often, has been remedied in later times 
in various ways: those who write e for i (rule 20.), write ie 
here, e. g. byggie, setie, sitie, etc. Those on the other hand, 
who, after the orthography of the Society for the Diffusion 
of Knowledge , as laid down by Conferencerad Stephenson, 
make a distinction betwen i and j, write ji } e. g. byggji, berji, 
venji, etc. but since the accent (') has been adopted to denote 
j before e we should be able, by extending it to these case, to 
express this sound exactly, without making any new rule, and 
without deviation from the original system of spelling, all which 
important advantages, are hardly to be united by any other plan. 
Thus it seems best of all to write seti, siti, qveSi, beri, qveli 
temi, veni, etc. So also in all like cases in the language, vili 
will, niSi offspring, bilir snowdrift, hverir which, etc. But after 
g and k no accent is needed, just as e also in these cases is 
not accentuated; e. g. byggi, bergi from bergja to taste, veki 
from vekja to wake, yrki from yrkja to worship. The same 
sound is also met with at the present time in other verbs in ka 
and ga, which have no j in the infin.; and also in other words, 
e. g. eingi mead ( Scotch ince), riki a realm, ungi an youth, 
j)anki thought, which are wont to be written neither with ie-, 
nor ji; for the rule that i after g and k sounds like i (ji) is 
still surer than the one, that e in the same cases sounds like e 
(je); e.g. backi bank {of river); a baki on the back, druckinn, 
drunken, skuggi shade, etc., are not pronounced as in Swed. and 
Dansk, back-e, bak-et, druck-en, skugg-a; but are sounded as 
backji, bakji, driickjin, skuggji; and so in all like cases without 
exception *. Finally if we wish to keep the accent on all 

* I heard however some persons of the west and south districts 
in Iceland pronounce ecki [not} without j, but it is commonly 
sounded like eckji. 



16 CONSONANTS 

verbs in ja, and write byggi, bergi, veki, yrki etc., we ought 
to make use of it also on all other words which have actu- 
ally j before other vowels in their inflections, e. g. eingi, seckir, 
sacks, etc., because we say ein»jum, seckjum in dat. pi., but 
not ungi, skuggi, because we never say ungja, skuggja, but 
unga, skugga. Though perhaps this distinction may be regarded 
as too minute and needless. 

40. K. is sounded 1. hard, as in Swed., before the hard 
vowels (rule 41.), and all conson. e. g. kala to be frost-bitten, 
aka to drive, sok a thing, it is also generally written for ch, 
e. g. kristr, kor; and by many instead of q, e. g. kvinna, kvelja; 
it is also used double by many instead of ck, e. g. ekkja or 
eckja widow, sakka or sacka soundinglead , sokk or sock 
sunk, 2. kj and k before the weak vowels are sounded like 
the Dansk kj, i.e. as hard k with a slight aftersound ofj; by 
no means like the Swed. kj, Engl, ch, Ital. ci, which is quite 
strange to the Icelander, and very hard to pronounce; e. g. 
kenna to know, kirkja or kyrkja a church', where k and kj 
have the same sound but must be written differently, because 
in the one case a weak, in the other a hard vowel follows 
after them; k has the same sound in all like cases; so in 
silki silk, merki mark etc. (see rule 39). 

41 . The so called hard vowels, before which g and k sound 
hard, like Ital. gh, ch, are a, a, o, 6, u, u, 6, au; the weak 
before which they are soft like the Dansk gj, kj, are therefore, 
cb, e, ei, i, i, y, y, ey. In connection with the former accor- 
dingly we must necessarily insert j if g and k are to have 
the softer sound; e. g. gjarn ready, willing, in fern, gjorn 
because gorn pi. garnir smallguts, has a quite different sound, 
so also kjor choice, because kor sick-bed (said of the bedridden 
state of the weak and old), is wholly different both in sound and 
meaning: kjot flesh, is sounded soft, but kottr cat hard, as in 
the Swed. word. In like manner we must write gjalfr sea 
(Poet.), kjalki jaw, cheek, kjoll frock, gjosa to sprinkle, gjora 
to do, etc. Before o, u, and au, the soft gj or kj is never 
heard, we must consequently pronounce kuldi cold, skaut 
bosom, gufa fog, gaupn the hollow of the hand', and all 



CONSONANT* 17 

such like words with hard k and g. In connection with the 
weak vowels on the contrary, it would be utterly superfluous, 
and useless to insert j, because g and k have always the soft 
sound of gj, kj in Dansk. 

It is therefore most correct to write kaer dear, kettir cats* 
geigr fear, danger, gimsteinar gemstones, kiminn a jeerer, 
gylla to gild, k^r kine, keyri a ?vhip etc., (not kjaer, kjettir 
gjeigr, gjimsteinar etc.) There is however an exception, when, 
e after g and k does not sound like je, but like a, namely in 
the pi. of subst, in andi, derived from verbs in ga or ka, 
(without j), e. g. from eiga to own comes eigandi owner, and 
this has in pi. eigendr (read eigandr not eigjend'r), so also 
elskandi lover, pi. elskendr (not elskjendr). But these cases 
are in part few, and in part produce no confusion, because 
it has been an old custom to retain j fi) in the pi. of subst. 
in jandi, e. g. verjendr, saekjendr, wnbyggjendr, from verjandi 
a warder, saekjandi pleader, inbyggjandi indwelhf, etc., never 
verendr, nor saekendr, inbyggendr. 

42. Double // has a very hard sound like dl or ddl with 
a hard d, e. g. falla to fall (read fadla), fullr fall, (fudPr); it 
is therefore sometimes found interchanged with dl, e. g. a milli 
and a midli between, frilla and fridla concubine, from mio" in the 
midst, and frio> fair. That the sound is not 8/, is heard plainly 
in the word eSli nature, and elli age, eld y and again that it is 
not tl is heard in the masc. name Atli (Attila), and allir all 
But from this pronunciation // those cases must be excepted in 
which d, t, or s follow, e. g. felldi felled, allt, alls, all, of all, 
where // is sounded as in Swed. So also compound words, 
and derivatives where each /belongs to a separate syllable, e. g. 
til-lag contribution, Hal-land, Hol-land. Yal-land (meaning some- 
times Italy sometimes France), mikil-Iatr Mgh-minded , litil-latr 
lowly-minded, and new words of foreign origin skatollift etc. : 
rl has a sound very near that of the hard 11, or when pro- 
nounced distinctly sounds almost like rdl, e. g. karl an old 
man, varla scarcely, which are also often written kail, valla, 
though less correctly, for kail is a subst. from kalla, and valla 
the Gen. pi. of vollr a vale, plain. 

2 



18 CONSONANTS 

43. Double nn has also a like hard sound, but only 
when it comes after a diphthongic vowel in the same syllable; 
e. g. einn one, sounds like hard eidn or eiddn; so also klenn, 
small, (read Mjedri) finn (ftdri) fine', dnn (odn for ofn) oven, 
brunn (brudn) brown, black, kaenn clever, keen, (read kjajdn). 
But should nn belong to the following syll., or if it be a 
simple vowel that goes before, the sound is the same as in 
Swed., e. g. a-nni river (dat. sing, with art.), ey-nni island 
(in the same case), (read av-nni, ej-nni); so also kanna to sur- 
vey, ken, hann he, brenna to burn etc.; rn has a sound very 
near that of the hard nn, or when plainly pronounced it may 
be pretty nearly described by rnd; it alway makes, like rl and 
the hard // and nn, the foregoing vowel as hard and sharp as 
possible; e. g. horn, (read hodn or hordn), jam iron (read 
javdn or javrdn). It has been often interchanged with nn, e. g. 
steirn for steinn stone, va^rn for vaen fair, but inflection easily 
shows which of the two is the right, e.g. ace. stein, vaen-nan, 
show that n is essential in these and like words, and that it 
is as wrong to write steirn v&rn as it would be to write 
storl, sari, for stoll stool, and ssell happy. 

44, The old writers often used, though the custom was never 
general, // and nn in all cases before d and t without regard to the 
radical form; e. g. elldr/zre, villdi from vilja to will, skylldi should 
from skulu, as well as fylldi filled from fylla to fill, maellti said 
from maela to say, lannd for land, frsenndi or fraendi friend, vanndi 
from venja, kenndi from kenna etc. This nnd however has been 
long since entirely laid aside, as also lid in cases where the 
root has a simple / or Ij; but since Id and It alone denote in 
all cases the same sound, and since conformity with /7S, md, 
nd, rS, mt, nt, rt, seem to demand it, the Imperf. and Part, 
ought certainly, even where the Infin. has 11, to be written Id, 
It; we always write for instance skemdi, skemdr skemt, from 
skemma to joke, brendi, brendr brent, from brenna to barn, 
firti, firtr firt, from firia to place at a distance, and also lagSi, 
lagSr lagt, from leggja to lay, and bygSi, bygSr bygt, from 
byggja to build, as well as sagSi, sag5r sagt, from segja to 
say, in the same way klipti, kliptr klipt, from klippa to clip, 
which also the pronunciation would seem to demand (rule 45), 



CONSONANTS 19 

porr hvesti augun a orminn. „Thorr whetted his eyes upon 
the worm " says Sturluson in the Edda ch. 48. from hvessa 
to whet etc. It would thus be of little use to etymologize so 
strictly in a single case against the established analogy of 
countless instances. But in declension // and nn are wont to 
be retained when they are essential, e. g. fall falls, a fall, allr, 
alls, all, hallr a stone, halls gen., bann a ban banns. 

45. Pt after a simple vowel is pron. between ft, and pt, for 
which reason it has been entirely changed by many moderns 
into ft both in prose and verse, e. g. eptir (or eftir) after, 
lopt (or loft) air, lift, 

46. Ov is often found even in old M. S. interchanged with 
kv, e. g. kvistr, kveld etc. It has been, like c, retained by the 
Society for the Diffusion of Knowledge, but rejected by the 
Icelandic Literary Society, so much is certain that it is of no 
kind of use either as an etymological sign, or as an abbreviation 
in writing, but on the contrary a hindrance ; e. g. qvikr and kykr 
quick, {alive), qvonbon and konbon courtship, are the same 
words; koma to come makes in the Imperf, kom or qvam, 
pi. komu or qvdmu, conj. kjamii or qvamii, and thus according 
to the rule the same sound in the same word is spelt differ- 
ently, and many .derivatives are separated from their primitives. 
Within the word q is not readily used, but only at the be- 
ginning; w r e write therefore commonly vokvi sap, sockva (or 
sokkva) to sink; though sokqva or socqva etc., are also found in 
old writers. But this system of spelling is less right, even though 
q should be retained, because v after ck is never essential in 
the old Norse ; but only, like j in f>eckja etc., inserted for the 
sake of euphony, which may be seen in the cases cited, and 
from the word ek sock / sink. 

47. Z never occurs at the beginning of a word, but at the 
end it was used by old writers, 1. as an abbreviation for st 
especially in the Pass., and sometimes in superlatives, e. g. 
sockvaz to be sinking , optaz oftenest; this has now almost 
entirely given way to sockvast optast etc.; 2. as an etymolog- 
ical sign for s before which d or t has fallen away, e. g. lanz 
for lands, veizla feasting for veitsla, from veita to feast, lezt 

2* 



20 CONSONANTS 

for let-st, helzt from heldr rather, bezt from betr better, etc. 
So also in foreign words in which ti before a vowel has the 
sound of si, e. g. spazia margin from spatium, disputazia, 
sitazia, porzion, qvittanzia, but never where the sound be- 
comes ts e. g. confirmatsion. 

48. Z is also used by old writers, 3. for 5 before which 
r has fallen away, e. g. in the superl. aztr is often written 
for astr , because this degree used to be derived from the 
com p. ar (ari), as it were instead of arstr; e. g. harS-aztr, 
hardest, agaet-aztr most famous, and also in the shorter superl. 
e. g. fyztr first, naeztr nearest, for fyrstr etc. But the superl. 
can be derived in Icelandic just as lawfully as in Angl-Sax. 
Swed. and other Gothic tongues, both old and new, immedi- 
ately from the positive, when all cause to write z in these 
cases falls away, except in those few instances, where the 
pos. itself or the rootform has an essential r; e. g. harftastr, 
agaetastr, so also naestr from the old na in nala^gr nearlying, 
but fyrstr (or fyztr) from the old for or fur before, staerstr 
(or staeztr) greatest from stdr, so also horskr (or hozskr) 
swift, clever. But the use of z for rs is now almost entirely 
rejected ; otherwise it ought to be employed in all 2nd and 
3rd pers., sing, of the Pres. Pass, jm elskazt, harm elskazt, 
j>at faezt it is got etc. 4. old writers often used z for the 
5 of the gen. especially after d, t, 11, where it is hard to guess 
at the object in view, unless it was wished to show, that d, 
t, and the last /, had lost their sound, e. g. landz, hestz, gen. 
of hestr horse, allz, of all etc. But this mode of writing is 
now wholly laid aside. 

49. The first two uses of z are so conflicting the one to 
the other, that it is impossible to reconcile them; according 
to the first we ought to write harftarz, (or hardaz), betz, 
heldz, leggiaz, lagdzr etc., by the other harftazt, bezt, helzt 
leggiazt, lagztr etc. The former is perhaps the original way, 
according to the manifestly old Greek use of i ;for <;#, and 
would have the advantage, if it could be used for"** in all 
cases, e. g. zanda, feza etc., for standa, festa, to stand, and 



CONSONANTS 21 

fasten, of making the writing shorter; the latter has also a very 
old though wavering use in its favour; as well as conformity 
with other new European tongues, (e. g. Ital. mercanzia, 
spazio etc.) It also serves if it be used in all the cases where 
d or t before s become mute, materially to shorten w r riting; 
e. g. vizka wisdom (from vitr), gaezka goodness (from g65r), 
and this just in cases where a number of contending conson. 
would otherwise give the language a barbarous appearance, 
e. g. islenzkt for islendskt, styztr shortest for styttstr, elztr for 
eldstr or elldstr. So also in all 2. pers. pi. Pass. e. g. f)i5 elskizt 
ye love one another •, f)iS elskuSuzt ye loved one another etc.; 
together with all dissyllabic and many monosyllabic supines 
Pass. e. g. luckazt, tekizt, s^nzt, sezt etc., where otherwise, 
inconsequently enough, in the case of the longer their origin 
is left unmarked, while in that of the shorter it is marked con- 
trary to the demands of pronunciation, e. g. luckast, tekist, sfntst, 
settst. That system of spelling also seems more natural which 
leaves out that which speech rejects, and distinctly marks that 
which it plainly distinguishes, than that which on the other hand 
distinctly marks what has fallen away, while it describes the 
actual sound by an abbreviation. Besides according to the 
first use it is impossible to show when d or t should be heard 
before s and when not, e. g. Iei5z^ sedz, tired, seen, which 
by the last method are most accurately distinguished ; e. g. 
leiSst, sezt. 

50. In what cases indeed according to the demands of the 
language d and t should be heard before s, and in what not, it 
is hard to decide, if ihis be not made known in the spelling. In 
general d is heard oflener than /, viz, always when it is ra- 
dical in the word and comes after a vowel (and thus is pro- 
perly 8), e. g. bla5s of a leaf, ra<5s of advice, hofuftsmaSr 
headman, overseer, g65s manns a good marts, hraeSsla fright, 
reefist it is decided, redst it was decided, qvaSst it was said, 
so also if it come after f, g, r or the like (thus again S) ; e. g, 
orSs a word's, bragSs a trick's etc. In all Pass, supines from 
Part, in ddr, the essential 5 of the words is retained, e. g. 
graedst is cured, graeddr cured, from graeda to cure, leiSst, 



22 CONSONANTS 

from leiSasi to be weary etc. Perhaps even virost it seems and 
the like. But hardly ever after n, I, or where there is a hard d 
except it be altered in pron. to 5*; e. g. lanz from land, elztr from 
eldri older ', binzst to abstain, refrain oneself stenzt to hold out 
unless we wish to say lanfts, binSst, stendst etc.: yet dd is 
kept in the gen. e. g. saddr sated, sadds etc., t which is essen- 
tial is heard in all gen. e. g. batr a boat bats, hattr hat hatts, 
hvatr brisk hvals etc., but never in the sup. Pass, whether it 
be essential or not, e. g. spilzt from spilt spilla to spoil, 
aminztr spoken of from amint aminna to call to mind, qveikzt 
lighted, from qveikt qveikja to light; so also sezt seated him, 
from sett setja, baezt to hare been increased, from baett ba?ta. 
In like manner in Sup. Pass, of all verbs which form the imperf. 
and Part. Pass, by inserting 5, which is not radical in the 
w r ordj for this 5 is changed invariably in the Sup. Act. into 
t, and t always falls away in the Sup. Pass. e. g. gjora gjorbi, 
gjoi'Sr, Sup. gjort Sup. Pass, gjorzt; so also bygzt to have 
been built, from bygt byggja, sagzt, from sagt segja to say, 
skein zt to have been jeered from skemt skemma, and all like 
these. The rule might therefore perhaps be shortly laid down 
thus, I. 5 is kept every where (except perhaps between a hard 
conson. and s in position, e. g. virzt Sup. Pass, of virSast it 
seems.) 2. dd is kept before a single s (in Gen.); but is 
changed before s in connection with more conson. into 5 (in 
Sup. Pass.) 3. d falls away every where before s which then 
becomes z, (unless it be sometimes changed into 8). 4. t and 
tt are constantly retained before simple s (in gen.) but are 
thown out always before s in position (in Sup. Pass.) 

51. p is an aspirated t, as 8 is an aspirated d, its sound 
has fallen out of all modern languages except the new Greek 
(6) and English (th), which last in subst. and verbs comes 
very near it, e. g. praung throng, feinkja to think etc. In 
old Norse it has always the same sound, except in pronouns 
or particles which in daily speech are attracted like enclitics 
to the foregoing word; e. g. a a?fi-{)inni in thy days, hafir- 
}m hast thou? where it has the sound of 8, dependant how- 
ever on the preceding letter (34). The word {)U is often 



READING 23 

thus contracted with verbs, in which case u loses its accent, 
and J) is changed into 5, d, or t, as the foregoing letter may 
require; e. g haf-Su Imper. of hafa to have, kom-du Imper. of 
koma, ris-tu of risa to rise, at the end of syllables it is never 
found except when written instead of 8 (35.) 



Reading, 

52. The first syll. has always the chief tone in all Ice- 
landic words, be they long or short, compound or simple. In 
dissyllabic words the second syll. is therefore short; e. g. rida 
to ride. In trisyllables the middle has a stronger tone than 
the last, as in tbe Swed. compounds upptaga, anfora; e. g. 
manneskja mankind, manaSir months, drjugari arrogant, aetlaSi 
intended. In compounds alone where the last part is mono- 
syllabic, the last syll. takes a stronger tone than the penul- 
timate, e.g. perutie peartree, papirsork a sheet of paper. Words 
of four syll. have the lesser tone on the penult, e. g. oanaegfir 
dissatisfied, ha^filigr suitable, avinningr winnings, twaer pappirs- 
arkir two sheets of paper. In compounds and derivatives 
alone where the last part is monosyllabic, this takes a stronger 
tone than the penultimate; e. g. Egyptaland Egypt, manneskjiiligt 
manlike, human. 

53. An exception from the rule that the first syllab. has 
always the chief tone seems to occur in some prepositions; 
e. g. amoti against, amilli between, lgegnum through, which are 
pron. with the same tone as the Swed. words emot, ^emellan; 
but these are properly only compounds of two words which are 
often and more correctly written separate, a moti, i gegnum, a 
meSan, and accordingly the first part, or actual prep, always 
falls away in all compounds formed with these w 7 ords; e. g. 
millibil midroom, mdtstafta opposition. 

54. In spelling and reading the Icelanders always divide 
words according to their etymological nature, so that conson. 
between two vowels are all given to that which stands first, 



24 RKMMNG 

if derivation or composition do not require a different arran- 
gement; e. g. dag-ar. hralh-ar ravens, hepp-inn lucky, eizt-i 
eldest, elsk a, aetl-a. The Swedish Academy in its treatise on 
spelling, and Botin in his work entitled „The Swedish Lan- 
guage in speech and writing " prove that the Swedish still 
follows the same Jaws; though in every day use the national 
system of spelling has been laid aside, and that of the southern 
nations adopted. Thus the Icelanders write just as correctly lif-ii 
the life (subst, with art. affixed), as lif life, haf-a to have as haf 
have, and have no need of fv (as in Swed.) because f always 
stands at the end of a syll. when it has the weak sound (v.) 

55. Position indeed makes the foregoing vowel prosodi- 
aeally long, but gives it a sharp short tone, as in the Swed. 
hort (borrt), hand, and the like. The words sverfi sword, 
har^r hard, borft, hoard, kaWr cold, hagl hail, |>egn thane, 
hofh haven, vopn weapon, vatn water, are pron. accordingly 
as svdrrd, harrVr, horr^, kalWr, haggl, \eygn, hobbn (rule 36), 
vhppn , vattn; even though the vowel were long before the 
position occurred, e. g. matr meat, smi5r a smith, are long 
in the Noum., but ihe Dat. with art, malnum, smionum, sounds 
nearly as mattnum, smiffonwn. So also datnum. to the dale, 
stomum to the stool, etc. 

56. Note, that r or ur final (the rune jfx ) never makes a 
position afler another conson., but is considered as a peculiar 
short syll. in itself, which however is seldom or never reck- 
oned in verse. The sound is ur or or, with a very short and 
obscure vowel sound; e. g. al-r awl, tek-r he takes, etVr or, 
either, which are not read allr, teckr, eftfir. but aV-r, tek-"i\ 
e$-'r, or alor tekor e$or; and in Poetry e. g. 

Glaor skal ek 61 meS | asum 
i ond- | vegi j drecka | 
glad shall I ale with &sir 
in the high-seat drink — 
where glaSr skal ek is reckoned as a dactyl; 
Almattugr Guft | allra | stetta 
Almighty God over all ranks — 



READING 25 

here ugr gu8 is reckoned as a spondee or trochee. In general 
also r only makes a position within a word after 5 and f, 
e. g. okra to practice usury, viSra to air , hafrar oats, read 
ok-ra, viffira, havvrar. 

57. The double cons, are pronounced plain and hard even 
after diphthongic vowels, e. g. full foul, leiddr led, slattr 
mowing-time, harra to be high 1 * msetti ?rae£, which must by 
no means be confounded with ful femin. of full', leiftr weary, 
slatr flesh , bara of hair, maeti meets; veggi w«// ? but vegr 
way etc. Double conson. have therefore the same effect on 
the foregoing vowel as a position, but single conson. always 
make the foregoing vowel Jong, e. g. vel well, man-saungr 
lovesong, veS wager, pledge, f)at that, til to etc., which must 
not be pronounced veil, till etc., but vel, tel, etc. like stel. 

58. Before m and n all vowels and diphthongs are pron. 
with a nasal sound, e. g. heimr world, raun trial, a-nni (in 
dat. sing with art) to the river, a-na ace, of the same, ku-nni 
ku-na dat. and ace, sing, with art of kti cow., am and anum 
dat. pi. (with and without art.) of a ; kum and kunum , the 
same of ku. But this never takes place where a cons, comes 
between; e. g. gagn gain, read gaggn, (not as in Swed. gangn) 
botn bottom, read bottn, (not as in the Dansk bund), stefn 
stem {of a ship) stabbn, (not as the Dansk stavn), seinn slow 
in the masc. read sejddn or sejd'n, einni one, in dat. fern. 
ejdni; since nn after a vowel in the same syll. is pron. as if 
there were a d between. 

59. When three conson. meet the weakest commonly falls 
out in pronunciation; e. g. halft half, hvirfli dat. sing, of hvirfdl 
a crow?}, top, volgt lukewarm, margt much, many, are pron. 
nearly as havlt, hvirrli, vollt, marrt, which last is also often 
written mart. In the same way are found yrmlingr, yrflingr, 
ami yrlingr, a worniling; in the words islenzskt, danskt, hardly 
any k is heard; in gagns, hrafns a crow's, vatns water's etc., 
scarcely any n, for which reason the last is often written vatz 
or vaz because t is also very little heard. So also r is 
hardly heard at all before st and nd, or nt, e, g, verstr worst. 



26 OLD PRONUNCIATION 

fyrstr first, alstirndr full of stars, ferhyrnt four cornered; 
which sound nearly as vesstr, fisstr, alstinndr, ferhinnt. Of 
fid, fnt, fit, gnd, gnt, and lid, lit, mention has been made 
already (rules. 36, 37, 42.) 

60. An unaccented vowel at the end of polysyllabic wo ids 
often falls away in daily speech before a word which begins 
with a vowel; this is seldom marked in prose, but in poetry 
it is usual in such cases to put an apostrophe after the vowel 
which is not heard; e. g. taka' amoti, taktu' amoti 

61. According to a constant custom handed down from 
the earlest times, the Icelanders only write Proper names with 
great initial letters, e. g. Haraldr, Irar, Svifjjoo* Sweden, but 
guft, djofull devil, konungr, jarl earl etc. 



The old Pronunciation. 

62. It has been much doubted whether the Icelandic system 
of pron. just described, is the genuine old one which was used 
when the tongue itself was spoken over all the three Northern 
realms. The language must, it is said, have undergone a 
change; the pronunciation must have been at first much nearer 
to the system of orthography, and been altered in later times 
by the Icelanders, just as the old Greek pronunciation has been 
plainly much mutilated by the New Greeks. That however the 
tongue should have been materially changed is contrary to all 
experience; it is well known that the remote position of the 
country, the very little foreign intercourse, and the love of the 
people for its annals and national poetry, have kept up the 
language to such a degree, that the common people still read 
the old Sagas for amusement, and the poets without exception 
still compose their songs after the old alliterative laws. That 
the pronunciation ought to be nearer the system of orthogra- 
phy, that is in other words, more like the present Swedish, or 
Dansk pronunciation, (for on any other supposition it is ac- 
tually nearer than in any other European tongue), seems to 



OLD PRONUNCIATION 27 

be an absurd demand, since according to all analogy it is 
more probable, that they who have kept the entire gramma- 
tical structure of the old tongue, and nearly all ils stock of 
words, should also have the old pronunciation, than those who 
have distorted and lost so large a portion of the inflections, and 
have bartered so many old for foreign words, that they can 
not now without laborious study understand the old authors 
and Poets, which holds good in nearly same degree of all three 
Scandinavian nations. A comparison with the Greek speaks 
iu favour of the Icelandic pronunciation; for it is just the 
Swed. and Dansk which in their present form are entirely new 
tongues, while the Icelandic as an original tongue answers to 
the old Greek and Latin; with the sole exception that it is 
now alive in speech and writing. There are some who hold 
up the pronunciation of the common people on the continent as 
the genuine old one, allowing that the polished pronunciation of 
Swed. and Dansk can not by any possibility be suited to the 
old Norse; but they seem not to consider that the speech of 
the people in each of the three realms is split into so many 
and so different dialects, that the Inhabitants of one valley 
often have the greatest difficulty in understanding those from 
another. Now since all these, especially those who live in the 
districts more remote from the coast, have a like right to 
regard theirs as the true old pron., we should thus have more 
than a hundred modes of pronouncing one and the same tongue. 
Such a variety bears plain evidence of the destruction of one 
whole, or the mingling of several dissimilar parts, which in the 
present case becomes clear on a contrast with the Icelandic, 
where very nearly the same pronun. reigns in all classes and 
over the whole immense Island, in districts which have little 
or no intercourse with one another. 

63. Besides the Icelandic system of Pron. bears in itself 
the best proof that it is genuine. In it there is no doubt 
whether we ought to write a or 0, <B or e, hv or v, kj or tj y 
etc., because each and all of these signs has its own sound, 
clearly and plainly distinguisht from the others; nor whether 
t (e) or a should be used in endings, since by these different 



28 OLD PRONUNCIATION 

cases and genders are denoted, which it would be as absurd 
to confound in Icelandic as in Latin, The Icelandic has in the 
main a single sign for each sound, and no really mute letters 
in its words: but if sometimes a sign has two or more sounds, 
these are so clearly dintinguisht by accents, position or some 
such plain and simple rule, that it is impossible to interchange 
them. This seems to bear as strong evidence of antiquity and 
originality, as the condition of the Dansk, and still more per- 
haps of the Swed. orthography of the numberless changes which 
these tongues have undergone in later times. Any one import- 
ant alteration in the Icelandic pronunciation of the old Norse, 
based on that which is now used on the continent would thus 
destroy the whole ancient and simple system, and in some 
cases even the structure of the tongue itself; e. g. if we were 
to read a as a. 1. This simple sound would have two signs 
d, and o which is the one now in use. 2. By this means a 
number of different words would be confounded; e. g. bara 
billow, bora to bore, far danger, for a drain, gatt the space 
between an open door and the wall, gott good etc. 3. The 
diphthong of a would then be wanting, answering to 6 from 
o, u from u etc. In the same way were we to read ce as 
a we should, 1. have two signs for the same sound, since 
e is always sounded like a, when it stands alone; 2. we 
should confound a number of words otherwise entirely differ- 
ent in pronunciation, origin, and meaning, e. g. for he goes 
from fara, with faer he gets from fa; hetta a hood, and ha3tta 
to go; ferS journey, faerft going (Swed fore) etc. 3. The 
diphthong of a would then be wanting, auswering to ei of e, 
i of i, y of y. 4. Not only would the whole vowel system 
thus be destroyed, but also the rules for the vowel changes, 
by which a simple vowel, is always replaced by another 
simple one, and a diphthong by another diphthong. Again if 
au were read as av the diphthong to o would 1. be wanting. 
2. It would be unaccountable how this sound should have 
become d in modem tongues; e. g. haukr hawk, dauffr death 
etc.; and 3. how the old Norsemen could have written au 
for o almost indifferently etc. If the hard sounds //, nn, were 
rejected the Masc. and Fern, of numberless adj would be con- 



OLD PRONUNCIATION 29 

founded. It was just by changes of this kind that the old 
original system of Inflection was in the middle ages first neg- 
lected, next mutilated, and at last irrevocably lost; and thus 
it seems quite wrong to wish to fasten on the old Norse any 
new system of pronunciation which has arisen out of its own 
mutilation. 

64. In addition many clear reasons for the Icelandic Pro- 
nunciation may be found in other old tongues; thus that a 
had anciently the sound of av, seems incontrovertible when 
we compare 1. the AS. savel with sal sou/, feava with fair 
(ace. faa) few, savan with sa to sow, cnavan with kna to be 
able, savon with sao saw. 2. Latin names and words, as 
Nicolaus Icel. Nikolas, Paulus Icel. Pall; caulis AS. cavl or 
cavel, Icel. kal, caurus, Icel. kari, the wind Poet. 3. Lapp 
words borrowed from our old Scandinavian tongue, e. g. blawes, 
Icel. blar blue, grawes, Icel. grar gray etc. The Germ, words 
blau, grau etc., also confirm this position though not nearly 
so strongly as the Lappish examples, because the Germ, is an 
independant kindred tongue, in which these expressions are 
as old as in Icel. and may have their own peculiar pronun. as 
is the case with so many others; e.g. (Haus, reiten etc.) whence 
we can draw no conclusion as to the sound of hus, rifta, but 
the Lappish are plainly borrowed from our forefather's tongue, 
not from the modern Swed., in which they have quite another 
sound. 4. Besides the Dialect ef the common people has still 
the same sounds in many parts; e. g. in the plain country in 
Funen a, 6, €£, ei, au, are heard; there fa is said for fa to 
get, go for god, good, heel for hdl heel, bein for ben bone, 
leg, dau for dod death, agreeing exactly with the Icelandic 
sound. In Smaland also a is at least said for a (6), and in 
other Swedish Provinces other peculiarities of the old tongue 
have been retained. 5. With regard to a the analogy of other 
old tongues, speaks for the right pronunciation, thus e. g. the 
Latin paucus has become the Italian poco, aurum oro, French 
or etc., and yet no one has wished to read pacus arum (pocus 
orum). It would require too much room to reckon up in this 
place all the Icelandic sounds that differ from the Swed.; the 



30 OLD PRONUNCIATION 

one just defended is perhaps one of the most disputed, but I 
will still make one or two remarks; the broad sound of 6 may 
be proved very nearly in the same way, Icel. sto a place is 
written in A. S. stov; the name of the Northern God OSin is 
written in an A. S. Sermon on Antichrist (in Lye) Ovfyen: 
domari judge, doomer, dempster., is called in Lappish duobmar, 
grop ditch graupe ; the hard //, rl, is written by the Fcrro 
Islanders, who have long since forgotten the old orthography, 
but have often retained the actual sound, dl, e. g. trodl for 
troll troll, jadl for jarl earl and the like. 

65. In what has been here said it is not meant that the 
Icelandic pronunciation of the present day was in all its parts 
entirely universal in old times over the whole North, it is 
probable that there was some difference in pronunciation in 
different places, though this could not have been very great, 
since there was it is plain but one language, and that one 
which had reached so high a pitch of cultivation and regula- 
rity. That which I should be especially inclined to regard 
as less genuine in the Icel. pronunciation is the sound of u, 
y and f, as well as au and ey, all which properly reduce them- 
selves to the two letters u ana 1 y. 

66. About u there can be no doubt; but u (without accent) 
may perhaps have had the sound of the short Engl, u in nut, 
but, the Dansk o in hos, the Swed. o in sporde, menmskor, 
Idrorih, etc. We may thus comprehend 1. why it is so often 
interchanged with o; e. g. gull and goll (poet.), tiingur and 
tiingor tongues, etc.; however incorrectly by the rule that o 
is always sounded as a (Engl, o); 2. how it is retained in 
the Ferro Dialect as u (not y or o), e. g. gudl as in all Nor- 
thern tongues; though in some words it is found replaced by 
y or o, e. g. urt wort Swed. ort, Dansk urt; brunnr brown, 
Swed. brunn, Dansk brond ; Jwnnr thin Swed. tunn, Dansk 
tynd, tukt schooling, old Swed. thokt, New Swed. tuht etc. 
It is therefore probable that in old times the form was differ- 
ent in different parts, but that the most general was that of 
the deep simple o (very nearly the same as u see rule 24.) 



OLD PRONUNCIATION 31 

67. Y seems then to have had the sound of the present 
Icel. u, Germ. il, Swed. deep o in hole, or simple y in lycka, 
etc.; f on the contrary that of Swed. and Dansk y, in by, 
shy, dyr etc. Which are sounded as yj (Tcel. uj, or ugj.) 
This may be concluded 1. from its Icel. name y. 2. from its 
interchange with u, e. g. lykla and lukla of keys (gen. PL), 
dyra, dura of doors; 3. from the Swed. and Dansk where it 
has always become y or o, e. g. dyr door, Swed. dorr, fyrir 
before Swed. fore, fifgr he flies , Swed. flyger, b^5r he bids, 
Swed. bjuder, Dansk byder ; and 4. even from some Icelandic 
words according to the present pron. on the Island, e. g. yckr 
ye two (Dual), kyrr still quiet, dryckr drink, etc.; 5 from the 
fact that it is denoted on Runic stones by [^ (not |), e. g. 

Uj l^j Vj 'I s I f£ Icel. systir. In the Ferro Dialect however 
it is entirely the same as i, e. g. likil Icel. lykill key , diir, 
Icel. dyr, etc. In old writers it is also interchanged with i 
(e. g. in the Codex Regius of the Ed da firir is w r ritten for 
fyrir), so that this also is not thoroughly sure. 

68. Au has without doubt been a diphthong of b, but pro- 
bably formed with v, (instead of j according to the present 
sound), and pronounced as many Norsemen still pronounce au, 
e. g. in Laurvig; which is so sounded that it is hard to say 
whether it be ov, ev; or av that is heard; (but in no wise like 
the Germ, au which comes nearer to a or o): This seems 
clear from the sign itself, since it appears impossible that it 
should enter into the head of any one to denote an articu- 
lation of j by il It has also been retained , or rather has 
become, ou, ou in Lappish; e. g. grauts, Icel. grautr. gruel; 
route as Fjellstrom writes it, others route, Finnish rauta, Icel. 
raudi iron. But there can be no question of the sound an, 
because that has its own sign d, which is changed into au, 
as o is into o, there remains then no other sound but ov 
to be thought of. Nevertheless it has become ej in the Ferro 
Dialect, e. g. leikur, Icel. laukr, leek, which shows that the 
pronunciation oj also is no new Icelandic invention. 



52 OLD PRONUNCIATION 

69. Ey was then the second diphthong of b, formed with 
/, and had therefore the sound of the present Ice I. au, (nearly 
Germ, eu); for 1. it is thus pronounced still in Norway, e. g. 
hoj, feel, hey, hay, (Germ, heu), hbjre heyra to hear; 2. It 
is also quite distinct from ei in the Ferro Dialect , where it 
has commonly become oj (or 6j) , e. g. hojgi hay, hojra to 
hear. 3. In the Peasant dialect of Fiinen also it has the same 
sound as au, thus nearly like oj 4. We may thus understand 
the reason of the system of writing au and ey; had there 
been in old times a clear comprehension of o as a simple 
vowel, and a simple sign for it in the alphabet, without doubt 
bu or b with an accent would have been written, and bi or 
by ; but since from the analogy of the Latin and Greek, and 
the sign m itself, this b was regarded as already a kind of 
diphthong, it was hard, agreably to other tongues, the other 
vowels, and the old sound itself, to find any more suitable 
signs than au and ey, 

70. These conjectures, should they be allowed to pass by 
any Philologist, and be followed in reading the old Scandi- 
navian tongue, would in nowise disturb, but rather strengthen 
and carry out the Icelandic system; since they distinguish y 
from i, and ey from ei, and settle their pronunciation in ana- 
logy with the other vowels and diphthongs; u and y* simple 
vowels, u and y diphthongs, and au is the diphthong to b, 
but by this arrangement each sign takes its own proper 
sound, and the pronunciation, on the whole, is brought some- 
what nearer to the spelling and the Dialect of the Continent. — 
The whole system of the vowels would then be shortly as 
follows 

a A se 

6 au ey 

e — ei 

i — i 

o 6, ce (73) 



u u 

y 



* nevertheless remain. 



OLD PRONUNCIATION. 



33 



For ja, jo, e, i, etc. have as little to do with the vowels, 
as, va, vo, ve, vi, etc. 

71. But that a knowledge of pronunciation and accentu- 
ation, in the old Norse at least, is quite indispensable for 
its use in etymology, and the right understanding of its words 
when read, would be perhaps quite plain, if it were consi- 
dered, that very many inflections are alone marked by vowel 
changes, e.g. bindi isPres. conj. but byndilmperf. conj.j there 
is the same distinction between gripi and gripi, viki and viki, 
etc.; and also that many words quite different in origin and 
meaning can only be distinguished by accent and pronunci- 
ation, e. g. I will quote in addition to the words mentioned in 
rule 19. the following; 

magr son in law. 
let! voice. 
sin 



magr meagre. 
leti laziness. 
sin sinew. 
vin friend. 
forn old. 
bur son (poet.) 
hattr hat. 
leiti hillock. 
friSr peace. 
lita to paint. 
hof temple. 
nyt gain. 



her (sua), 

vin wine. 

forn victim. 

bur storeroom, barn. 

hattr arrangement of time. 

laeti gestures. 

fri5r fair. 

lit a to look, 

hof measure. 

nyt I enjoy etc. 



It is easy to understand how often the whole sense of a 
passage may be changed, when such words are confounded 
together; as an actual example I will only quote one strophe 
of SkaSis song in Goranson's Edition of Gylfaginning; in which 
she says why the seastrand was so hateful to her; 

"Sofa ek maka "Sleep can I not 

saefar befjum a on the seastrand 

fugls jarmi fyrjr; for the birds cry ; 

the horse (sea), that comes 
from the woods, waketh 
me every morning^ 

3 



sa mik vekr, 
er af viSi kemr, 
morgun hvern mar." 



34 CHANGE OF SOUND IN OLD NORSE. 

Which is without connection or meaning, but becomes, when 
read with its proper accents, quite plain and simple ; 
"Sa mik vekr, "He waketh me, 

er af vi5i kemr as he comes from the sea, 

morgun hvern mar." every morn the mew." 
viSi is the dat. of viQir sea (Poet.) , but viSi dat. of vi5r wi- 
thy, tree, wood; and mar is a seamew , but mar a horse, or 
(Poet.) the sea. 

But to require fixed rules for the Icelandic accentuation, 
is the same thing as to ask in Swed. when d, and when a, 
etc. should be written. One is forced to know the word and 
its sound, when it is not possible to hesitate a moment about 
its accentuation. The modern pronunciation however always 
demands an accent or a diphthong before ng and nk (73), 
which mode of writing is also found in some old M. S. In 
addition i and y take the accent in daily speech before gi and 
gj, contrary however in both cases to etymology, and the 
analogy of other instances; e. g. sprack pi. spningu, conj. 
sprfngi; imperf. pi. stigu stepped, conj. stigi, and flugu flew, 
conj. ftygi, agreeing with the pronunciation of e before gi[, 

9h (15.) 



CHAPTER HI. 
On the change of sound in the old Norse. 

72. The system of Inflection often requires, besides the 
proper endings, a change of vowel within the word itself; and 
the formation of derivatives often takes place by means of a 
similar change, according to rules which hold good through- 
out the language. The vowels separate themselves, in this 
respect, into two classes, in which they are commonly inter- 
changed among themselves, so that it is very seldom that any 
vowel of the one, is replaced by one belonging to the other* 
The A -class contains a, o, e, i, a, ce, ei, L (and ja, jd, jah 
jo, e, t.)', The O-cIass the rest, namely o, u, y, 6, u, y, au, 
ey, (together with jo and ju). 



CHANGE OF SOUND IN OLD NORSE. 35 

73 M alone seems to belong to both classes, because 
both a and 6 are changed into ce ; but Olaf Hvitaskald re« 
marks, and this is often found to be confirmed by old M. $., 
that ce was looked upon as offensive, in case it was not derived 
from a, and that accordingly ce was in preference used in those 
cases where the root form had 6 ; this ce, which has been 
retained in later times by the new tongues on the Continent, 
(e. g. bondi husband , peasant, PI. bcendr, br65ir brother, PI. 
brceSr, Swed. bonder, broder.) is therefore the only one 
which belongs to the O-class. In like manner au and eg, seem 
sometimes to belong to the A-cIass, but this is only in the 
syllables aung, eyng, which are derived from dng. But in old 
writers (as also still among the inhabitants of Dalasyla) bng, 
eng, and ang, are found in its stead, sounds completely within 
the A-class; and this pronunciation, which agrees with the 
Angl. Sax. and Dansk, is perhaps the true and original one. 

74. A is changed, 1. into o before all endings which con- 
tain u (o), e. g. haka in ace. hoku, pi. hokur, dat. pi. hokum; 
faSir, ace. foSur; but if the word be polysyllabic, a in the 
chief syll. becomes 6, and in the others u, e. g. bakari baker. 
dat. pi. bokurum, hera5 district, dat pi. heruftum. In the same 
way a is changed in all neut. pi. and fem. sing, of substan- 
tives and adj. which end in a conson., e. g. hjarta. PI. hjortu, 
beraft, pl. heruS, haf sea, pi. hof, sok suit, glaSr glad, fem. 
and neut. pl. gl65, spakr wise, fem. and neut. pl. spok: 2. often 
into e before the endings i (e), and r (ur), e. g. dagr dat. 
sing, degi, faSir pl. nom. fe'Sr; and always in the sing, of mo- 
nosyllabic Pres. (in the 2. Conjug.), e. g. from taka, tek I take. 
from fara, fer I fare, go, from falla, fell I fall; and also in 
many deriv. lenda to land from land, nefna to name from 
nafn name etc. 

75. O is changed, 1. into a before endings which contain 
a, e. g. sak-ar of a thing, sak-a of things, from sok. Only 
where a position comes between, or v is inserted, can essen- 
tial o be retained, e. g. dogg dew, gen. doggvar or daggar; 
2. Into e before the endings i and r; e. g. borkr bark, dat. 

3* 



36 



CHANGE OF SOUND IN OLD NORSE. 



berki, mork a woody plain, gen. iherkr, so also sekr guilty. 
from sok, etc.; 3. Essential o and jo (which are nvvev inter- 
changed with a, ja,) are changed into y; e. g. troll a troll, 
an evil spirit , at trylla to bewitch, smjor butter , smear, at 
smyrja to smear, mjoll meal, at mylja to grind ; that ?/ must 
be used here (not trilla, smirja, milja, etc.) is shown by the 
kindred tongues, and the Icelandic inflection of the word; e. g. 
Dansk trylle ; and the Icel. imperf. smurSi smeared, mulSi ground. 

76. 27 is changed in deriv. into i, thus illvirki, illdoer, 
from verk, virSa fo value, from verS worth. 

77. ,/# is changed into ,70 and i, as ^0 into /« and i ; e. g. 
djarfr daring, fern. djorf, and dirfast £0 5e daring; bjorn #mr, 
Gen. bjarnar, dat. birni; hjorS herd hjarftar, and hirSa to herd, 
watch; just in the same cases as a is changed into b, e; and 
into 0, c, (rules 74. 75.) 

78. A'ng is changed into aung and eing , (never eyng). or 
according to old pronunciation and orthography, ang into bng, 
eng (rule 73.); dnk or arik is changed in the same way; e. g. 
at ganga (ganga) to go, Pres. geing (geng), PL gaungum, 
(gongum), conj. geingi (gengi), krankr (krankr) weak, fern, 
kraunk (kronk), at kreinkja (krenkja) to be sick, etc. But if 
several conson. come between, a remains unchanged; e. g. 
angraor sorrowful, fern. angruS, hangit kjot hung flesh, dat. 
hangnu kjoti. 

79. Aung is changed into ang, and eing or eyng', and 
aunk is altered in the same way; e. g. taung tong , gen. tang- 
ar, or by another method of inflect, teingr; haunk hank, gen. 
hankar, or heinkr. These are also found with ey, teyngr etc., 
but ei seems more right in those cases where d can also be 
used; ey on the other hand from essential au can never be 
interchanged with a (by rules 75. 77. 78.) e.g. {miungr thronged 
close, comp. Jreyngri, and the verb J)reyngja to throng, squeeze. 

80. A before the endings i and r becomes ce, e. g. J)raSr 
thread, dat. sing. {jraeSi, p!. f>ra?Sir; so also in deriv., e. g. 
(>rse5a to thread, mal measure, macla to measure, ret tlatr 
righteous, rettlaeti righteousness, etc.; but e only before a hard 



CHANGE OF SOUND IN OLD NORSE. 37 

position, especially with /, or r, thus heisi necklace, helm- 
ingr (helfingr) one half, from halfr half: alvepni full mail, from 
vapn weapon. 

81. and u are changed into y before the ending i, and 
in many deriv.; e. g. sonr (sunr) son, dat. syni, tyrfa to turf 
from torf turf styoja to stay from stoS a stay, gylla to gild 
from gull, fylla from fullr. 

82. 0' is changed into ce for ce by rule 73.) , e. g. fotr 
foot, dat. iseli (fceti) pi. fsetr (fcetr), bondi feasant, pi. haendr, 
(bcendr); so also haela (hoela) to praise, from hoi praise, haefa 
(hcefa) to behoove, become, from hof. On the other hand into y, 
if a hard position especially with / come between ; (comp. 
rule 80.) e. g. fylki a province, small kingdom, from folk, 
whence also fy\k\r King (poet.); dylg-jur feud from dolgr foe. 

83. U' is changed into y, chiefly in deriv., e. g. hySa to 
whip vulg. hide, from huS hide, hfsa to house from hiis house, 
mfs mice from mus mouse. 

84. Jo and ju into y especially in deriv., e. g. !jos light, at 
tysa to light, ljuga to lie, tygi a lie, brj6ta to £r6«A: br^t, fljuga 
to fly, pres. flyg. 

85. Au 1. into ez/, e. g. ieysa ft? loose from laus /oose, 
teyma to lead, team, from taumr rein, trace, heygja to bury 
in a barrow, from haugr a barrow, etc.; 2. Into o, e. g. ro8i 
redness from rauSr re^ doli sluggishness from daufr dea/J 
sfow, fnauka and f)roka to drudge. 

86. In addition the vowels in monosyll. Imperf. are chan- 
ged in a peculiar way. 

a (short) into u, e. g. drack drank pi. drucknm, 
spann span spunnum, part, druckinn etc. 

a (h ng) into a, e. g. drap slew pi. drapum, sat 
sat satum. 

ei into i, e. g. reif tare pi. rifum, leit saw pi. 
litum, part, rifirm, litinn; so also in deriv. hiti heat from heitr 
hot, fitna to grow fat from feitr fat. 

au 1. into u, e.g. fraus froze pL frusum, lank 



38 CHANGE OF SOUND IN OLD NORSE. 

locked pi. lukum, so also in deriv. flug flight from flaug flew, 
hlulr lot, share, hlaut, obtained, 

au 2. into o, in part, from imperf. in an, 
e. g. frosinn frozen, lokinn, locked, floginn flown, hlotinn ob- 
tained ; and also in deriv., e. g. frost frost, lok end, lock, 
dropi a drop, from draup dripped, dropinn dripped; yet per- 
haps these words should be derived from the Part. 

87. It happens also sometimes that an accentuated vowel 
loses its accent when the word is lengthened, e. g. spitali 
spital , lazar house, spitelskr lazar ; ut utan* briidr bride, 
brullaup bridal. In some deriv. also i is changed into i; thus 
smiSr smith and smiftja a smithy, from smi'Sa to smithy, lifa 
to live from lif, bit a bit and biti a bite, from bi'ta to bite, 
sviSi smart from svi5a to smart, elc. Most of these substan. 
however would be more rightly derived from part, pass., than 
from the Infin.; but there is often so great a diiference between 
these tenses, that they seem to presuppose two separate root 
forms of the same verb, as in Greek; so that it would be an 
idle attempt to try to bring this change of sound under any rule. 

88. A soft j is often inserted between two vowels for the 
sake of euphony; e. g. baer (beer) a farm house, gen. baejar 
(boejar), ek dey 1 die, Infin. at deyja; ek fif I fly, at ftyja; anc ^ 
also between a conson. and vowel, e. g. ek vil / will at vilja, 
lem at lemja to beat, ek hryn / tumble at hrynja, spyr ask at 
spyrja (Scot, speer.), dys stoneheap gen dysjar, rif rib dat. 
pi. rifjum, gen. pi. rifja, lep at lepja to lap, ry<5 at ryfija to 
root out, let at letja to dissuade; but in this last case it is 
needful that the foregoing vowel be simple and low e, i, or 
y, followed by a simple conson. (never d, or b.) The case 
is the same if it be gg , Ig, rg, ch, Ik, or rk, that comes 
between the ending and the chief vowel, e. g. |)igg at friggja 
to take, dryckr drink, gen. dryckjar; from folk battlearray, 
battle, comes at fylkja to set in array, and from sorg sorrow 
at syrgja to sorrow. If it be g, k, ng, or nk, that comes be- 
tween, j is inserted, even where the foregoing vowel is diph- 
thongic, m, ei, i, y, or ey, e. g. vek at vekja to wake, vik at 
vikja to yield, floki felt at flaekja to entangle, dreingr serving 



CHANGE OF SOUND IN OLD NORSE. 39 

man dat. pi. dreingjum, gen. pi. dreingja, langr long at leingja 
to lengthen, ungr young, yngja upp to renew, make young again. 

89. With the same view, but neither so regularly nor so 
often ? f is inserted between two vowels, and v between a 
conson. and a vowel ; e. g. har high, ace. sing, hafan, defin. 
hinn hafi; mjor small, ace. mjofan, def. hinn mjofi, myrkr 
murk, ace. myrkvan, dyggr trusty, dyggvan, dockr dark, ace. 
dockvan. This is especially used where the first syll. has o, 
and the last a; e. g. hdggva to hew, sockva to sink, because 
they would otherwise have to be read hagga, sacka, (by rule 
lb.) In old poetry this v is often inserted, where it is now 
generally left out. 

90. V falls away before o, u, and y ; e. g. from verpa to 
lay eggs, to throw , is formed the Imperf varp, which in the 
pi. becomes urpum, in the conj. yrpi and in part, orpinn; from 
vinna to win Imperf. vann. pi. unnum, conj ynni, part, un- 
ninn; vefa to weave Imperf. of, part, oflnn. Where it is kept 
o or 6 has always come in instead of a (rule 13.); e. g. vega 
to weigh, Imperf vo or vog, for vd, vdg, vorum or vorum for 
varum, vor our, for vdr, vopn weapon for vdpn, etc. 

91. That 8, d, t, and r, often fall away before s has been 
already mentioned. The same happens also before t, which is 
then doubled in monosyll. words and after vowels; e.g. kallaSr 
neut. kallat, called, fmkidr (otherwise Jakinn) thatchi, neut. |)akit, 
annar another, the second, neut. annat, ver"Sr worth neut. vert, 
harSr hard neut, hart, steindr stained, steint, skyldr bound, 
pledged, skylt (skillt.), leiSr tiresome, weary, leitt, raudr red, 
rautt, goor good, gott, gla5r glad glatt; of two d's (dd) one 
is usually kept, e. g. leiddr led, neut. leidt, graeddr, healed, 
graedt, which is right, for it is kept also in the sup. Pass, 
(as 5) where t has been thrown out; e. g. Iei5zt graeSzt; but 
sagdt, reyndt, (proved, tried), would be wrong, because the 
sup. pass., is not sagozt, reynftzt, but sagzt, reynzt. Some 
modern writers however keep this needless 8 in their words, 
e. g. verdt, hardt, steindt, skyldt, leidt, raudt, but never kal- 
ladt, \akidt, any more than with 5 ? verftt, harbl, etc., because 



40 CHANGE OF SOUND IN OLD NORSE. 

5" is always changed into d before d, e. g. leiddi imperf. of 
leiga to lead, gra?ddi imperf. of graeSa to heal, etc. N also 
falls away before t at the close of polysyll. words, e. g. 
skilit separated, (for skilinf), tamit tamed (for tamint), |>akit 
(for ^akini), from skilinn, taminn, j>akinn; ndt is particularly 
avoided ; which in short words is assimilated to tt; e. g. binda 
to bind, imperf. batt, imperat. bittu; so also sannr , neut. satt 
(sannt.) Nd, nn, also are sought to be avoided in position, 
e. g. annarr pi. aSrir, skilinn skildir, |>akinn Jaktir, (for ann~ 
rir, skilnir, Ipaknir.') In old writers nn and w, are very often 
exchanged for? S, e. g. sa5r for sannr sooth, muftr for munnr 
mouth, annarr A. S. ofter , skilinn and skili5r, fmkinn and 
J)akiSr, taminn and tamiSr, etc. 

92. With k, r is assimilated to ck, when the foregoing 
vowel is a diphthong, otherwise not; e. g. stsecka to wax 
big, enlarge, from staerri bigger, mjocka to make smaller, 
from mjdrri smaller. The case is the same with S in every 
day speech, though it is commonly kept in writing, e. g. 
bliSka, (blicka,) to shine, blink, viSka (vicka) to widen; n is 
assimilated if a simple vowel , but cast out if a diphthong, 
go before, e. g. macki the crest, {the upper part of a horse's 
neck along with the mane), (Dansk manke), hreckir tricks, 
mukr monk, kanukr a canon (for kanunkr from canonicus.) 

93. With r, I and n are assim. to 11, nn, when a diphthong 
goes before; e.g. heill whole (for heilr), stoll stool (for stolr), 
grsenn green, (for gramr) s^nn plain, clear, (for sfnr.) If the 
foregoing vowel be simple, Ir, nr , are often kept, especially 
in short words , e. g. hvalr whale, skilr separates, skills, linr mild, 
sonr son, but they are are also often assim., especially at the end 
of polysyll. words, e. g. vill (for vilr), j)6gull taciturn, gamall 
old gen. pi. gamalla, jokull iceberg, minn mine (for minr) hinn 
the, that , (for hinr) gen. pi. hinna (for hinra), f>akinn (for 
\akinr), gen. pi. f>akinna , (for \akin-rd), which takes place 
in all dissyll. adj. and part, in -inn. But if there be a conson # 
before, then r falls away entirely, e. g. ail forge, hrafn raven, 
(for afl-r,) hrafn-r. The same holds good of sr in old writers 
e.g. assanJls, god, iss ice, lauss loose, hals neck, lax salmon, 



TRANSITION OF WORDS. 41 

(for dsr, isr, lausr, hdlsr, laxr,) but in common speech as, is, 
laus ; so also in 2. and 3. pers. pi. Pres. in the second con- 
jugation, e. g. skin (in old writers ski'nn) for sMnr shines, eys 
waters, old eyss (for eysr.) 

94. All these changes of sound indeed are deep rooted in 
whole structure and existence of the language, but it is espe- 
cipally for the sake of inflection and formation of words, that 
the vowels, and for that of euphony, that the consonants, are 
changed; which is quite natural, because in all northern ton- 
gues the consonants have a very great preponderance. 



CHAPTER IV. 

On the transition of words. 

1. From Old Norse into Swedish. 

95. A great number of words are common to the Icelandic 
and Swed., though they have become much changed in the 
latter tongue by the system of spelling and pronunciation; as 
a help towards recognizing them in their older shape, the 
following common method of transition should be remarked. 

96. The vowel changes are the following 

d has become a (Engl, o.), e. g. ran", rad., Engl, rede, 
counsel, langr langr, long, fa, fa, few, pa da, then, there, 
malari, malar e, miller. 

o also a e. g. hoi, hal, hole, fol, fale, foal. 

e. g. fraendi, frdnde, friend, ssell, sail happy, 

naer, ndr, near. 

e. g. eta, dta, to eat, brenna, brdnna, to burn, 

(old. E. brenn.), hestr, hast, horse, merki, mdrke, 

mark. 

heitr, het, hot, mein, mehn t , moan, reita, reta, 

to pluck. 

skin, sken, sheen, vita, veta, to wit, know, faSir, 

fader, father, hirSir, herde, herd, galinn, gal en* 

silly, andi, ande, spirit, breath, spegill, spegel, 

lookingglass. 



ce has be- 


come a, 


e also has 


become a, 


62 has be- 


come e, 


i also e, 



42 TRANSITION OF WORDS 

au and ey kaupa, kopa, to buy, chaffer , keypti, Icopte, 
have be- bought, draumr, drom, dream, dreyma, dromma, 
come o, to dream, laus, Ids, loose, leysa, losa, to loose, 
haukr, hole, hawk, heyra, hbra, hear. The case 
is the same with ce which comes from 6 (and 
is also written az 73. 82.); graenn grdn, green, 
(from at groa to grow): faera, fora, to bring, 
(for) faeSa, foda, to feed, (foSur, Engl, food, 
fodder,) aefa, ofva, to practice, plaegja, ploja y 
to plough, saekja, soka, to seek. 

y also very of- fyrr, forr, before, dylja, dolja, to hide, fylgja, 
ten becomes o, fblja, to follow, yfir, ofver, over. 

o becomes a, especially in fern, and neut. pi. sok, sak, suit, 
grof, graf, grave, ditch, born, barn, bairn, 
(0. Engl.) hof, haf sea, voir, vail, a plain. 

97. The simple vowels o, e, i, y and o, have often been 
kept in Swed., especially before a position, e. g. orka, verk, 
viss, mynt, bjorn , which words are written exactly alike in 
both languages; and also in many cases where the vowel has 
been shortened , and the consonant following doubled , e. g. 
skot, skott, shot, brot, brott, crime, lok, lock, lock, til, till, 
till, to, etc.* 

* In this lies the chief root of all the confusion now reigning 
in the Swedish Etymology. 1. The pronunciation has been 
changed, and all diphthongs simplified. 2. The old system of 
orthography has been altered, and new signs adopted (a, a), 
for sounds which had already generally received signs in the 
tongue (o, e,)j while the old way of distinguishing by accents 
between the sound in trott and brott, stort and kort, has 
been laid aside; and yet it has not been possible to bring in 
the new signs in all cases , but the old system has been 
partly suffered to exist, and at the same time Etymology has 
made use of the new signs in many cases, and in others re- 
frained from making them universal. In this way different 
signs have arisen for one and the same sound, godt fait, den 



FROM OLD NORSE INTO SWEDISH. 43 

But the diphthongs above mentioned, a, ce, ei, au, ey, 
have been invariably changed , commonly in the way given 
above, but also sometimes differently, e. g. au into a, }>rauk, 
trak, toil, brauk, brak, a fraction, saungr, sang, song, staung, 
stang , stake, as in the Old Norse itself (85.). The other 
diphthongs i, 6, u, f, have been usually kept on the other 
hand, though without the accent, e. g. lik, lik, a body, rot, rot, 
root, djup, djup, deep, pryda, pry da, to trick out, pride one- 
self, etc., though these too have been sometimes changed, 
e. g. ljos, ljus, light, tru tro, belief d^r, djur, beast, etc. 

98. The most important changes in the consonants are the 
following ; 

h falls away before all conson. in pronunciation, and is 
retained only before i and v in writing, e. g. hljoS, ljud, a 
sound, hnyckr, nyck , caprice, hreinn, ren, reindeer, hjarta, 
hjerta, heart, hveiti, hrete, wheat. 

p becomes, 1. t in nominatives and verbs, e. g. Jnstill, 
tistel, thistle, |)raeta, trdia, to deny, wrangle, J)ola, tola, to 
bear, |>r^tr tryter, fails; 2. d in pronouns and adv., e. g. |m, 
du, thou, fessir, dessa, these, Joar, der, there, {>a, da, then, 

man, and on the other hand two different sounds for the same 
letter, e. g. dom om , hem fern, and when the sound is 
once departed from there is no means by which it is possible 
to stop these confusions except custom, we find therefore in 
writing, fog el fag el, haf and hof dga and eg a, ddr and 
der, and both sides have reason for their system, but were 
the sound the simple rule , as in the Old Norse , we should 
be soon all of one mind in the new tongues. In the Dansk or- 
thography, there is the same confusion from the same cause, 
here too the sound lias been changed, and the diphthongs thrown 
away; and though the original aa, ai and o have been kept, 
yet double signs have sprung up Qaa and o, ce and e,} for 
single sounds, and again, because the accents have been laid 
aside, double sounds for the simple signs o, e, i, u, y and b\ 



44 TRANSITION OF WORDS 

8 becomes d, e. g. blab", blad, leaf, siSr. sed. wont, frifla, 
freda, to still, appease. 

Within the word and at its close the conson. have often, 
been doubled, e. g. timi timma, hour, daema, domiua, to deem, 
doom, koma, komma, to come, vinir, tanner, friends, vit, vett, 
wit, sviti, svett, sweat. 

/'between two vowels becomes fv ; kljufa klgfva, rif'a, 
rifva, to rive, rend, hof-in, hafcen, the sea. 

fn becomes mn, rifna, rtmna, to crack, hafnir, hamnar, 
harbours, svefh, somn, sleep, (very much in the same way as 
*vnv6$ somnus etc). 

Other positions like these have often been separated and 
a vowel inserted ., e. g. vapn vapen, weapon, vatn, fatten, 
water, fugl, fag el, fowl, hagl, hagel, hail. 

All masc. signs (r, and one of the double 11, nn, etc.) have 
fallen away, e. g. konungr, konung, king; plogr, plog, 'plough, 
jprael, tral, thrall; stein, sten, stone, all, al, eel, blar, bla, 
blue, hvitr, hvit , white; nakinn, naken, naked, finn, fin, fine, 
einn en, one; etc. 

99. In the adoption of Icelandic Proper Names, which be- 
long to the old mythology and history, much confusion has 
arisen in the new tongues, through the ignorance of our old 
writers in the pronunciation and etymology of the Old Norse; 
they commonly made use of Latin renderings, but this latin- 
izing of the old names brought along with it much distortion, 
which was not suited to our tongue and made new distortions 
unavoidable. It is not easy to lay down rules for this branch 
of orthography, but, judging from the transition and use of 
other words, it seems most advisable, 1. (o keep the chief 
syll. in the word, as far as possible, unchanged; e. g. Vala, 
(not Vola), Saga, Freya, Reidg ot aland , Jotunhem, (not Jo- 
thunhem). Yet 2. h must fall away before 1, n and r ; e. g. 
Lidskjalf Rejdmar, Loder, for Hlioskjalf, Kreiomar , Hloor. 
3. j must always be accurately distinguished from i , e. g. 
M joiner, Asbjont, Njord, (or Njord), Skjold, (Skjold), Thjodotf. 
3- JE and au, are supplied by a and o, but all other vowels 
are kept without regard to accent , e. g. Sdming , Hdner, 



FROM OLD NORSE INTO SWEDISH. 45 

Odumla, Kerlogar, Gofer, (not Gaidar,) Alf, Asgeir*, Bar aid, 
Oden, Loke, Gudrun, Gunnar, Sigurd, Heimdall, (or Hejmdall), 
Frey. 5. The endings undergo most change; i, ir, nir, ill, 
and inn especially become e, er, ner, el, en, e. g. Br age, 
Yngve, Sigurlame, Snorre, Saxe, Mimer, Ymer, Ager, Skid- 
bladner, Yggdrasel , Oden. 6. r, (ur) should be kept and 
changed into er, where it is essential; e. g. Balder, Ragna- 
rbcker ; but be thown away where it is not essential ; (i. e. 
when it falls away in the Icel. inflection of the word); e. g. 
Rig, Nidhogg, Sdmund, Asmund, Fornjot; this ending however 
may be very well kept occasionally in monosyll. names, and 
in poetry, as an er paragogicum, e. g. Ull-er, Hod-er, Lopt-er, 
Starkad-er, Lbg-er, or Log-en, (not Logaren) ; just as glader, 
goder, are sometimes used for glad, and god; other endings 
should be kept unchanged, e. g. Odun , (Auftun,) Amor, 
Hjalmar, Bbdvar. 7. In Names of women is seems best 
always to throw away this ending when it is non essential; 
e. g. Gunnhild, Ragnhild, Sigrid, Urd, Gerd, (or Gerde), 
Hild (or Hilde), Hejd {or Rejde). The form in e is a later 
npin. instead of Geror, Hiicr, Ileior, made from the ace. 
GerSi, Hildi, HeiSi. 8. Those which have a keep it, as Gyda, 
Edda, Svafva; but those which have no vowel ending do not 
take a in Swed.; e. g. Skade, Gondul, Skogul, Gefjun, Idun, 
Sigyn, Frigg, Sif, Skidd, Hald, Ran. 9. If the name contain 
words which are already well known and current in the new 
language, these should be adapted to the system of spelling 
and pronunciation now in use; e. g. Gldsesvall , Idavallen, 
Alfhem, Vanahem, Ake-Thor, or Ak-thor, (not Auka-Thor which 

* This name, still in use in Iceland, which also occurs on Runic 
stones , and in old Histories under the form Asker or Esker, 
in Angl. Sax. Osgdr, is the same as Oscar, and made up of 
A's an As, God, and geir a spear, or perhaps a kind of falcon 
(Germ. Geyer); both which words were of old very common 
in names e. g. Asvaldr, A. S. Oswald, Ulfgeir, A. S. Vulfgdr, 
etc. The name Osgar itself occurs often in old A. S. deeds, 
e. g. in ^Elfhelm's will, which Lye has inserted in the second 
part of his Dictionary. As well as in other documents. 



46 TRANSITION OF WORDS 

is a senseless distortion of the old Oku-{)6r, or according to 
an old Icelandic orthography Avku-J)6r, 29.), Eysten, Asgard, 
Valhall, Bdf-rosty (not Bi-frost, which a Germ, once trans- 
lated Bienen-frost (Engl. Bee-frost). If the name has a gene- 
rally received form , no new one need be introduced, e. g. 
Erik, Hakari) Anund, Olof. 

100. The baptismal name is always in Icel. the chief name, 
by w T hich the person is commonly addressed , e. g. Snorri, 
Hakon, Finnr, etc. ; which old and once general Norse custom 
is still retained in the case of Kings, as well as in that of the 
common people, in all the three Northern Kingdoms. For the 
sake of clearness the father's name is often added , e. g. Har- 
aldr Gormson, Snorri Sturluson. Jon porlaksson, Gy r $a Eiriks- 
dottir, pun'Sr Snorraddttir goSa. But this is not usual if the 
person has any surname from his look, dwellingplace, cha- 
racter or the like, thus Ragnar LoSbrok, prandr i Gotu, Sigriftr 
storraSa, Knutr enn riki, Karl tolfti. But these names, as is 
natural, only apply to one person, and are not handed down 
from father to son ; our forefathers in general , after old na- 
tional custom, had no family names at all, and yet', in spite 
of this, the Icelanders can give a better account of their 
genealogies than any other nation now existing in Europe. 
In later times however family names, after the German and 
French fashion, have begun to be adopted even in Iceland; 
e. g. Vidalin, (from viSidalr), Hjaltalin, etc., especially with 
Latin or Dansk endings, as Thorlacius, Stephensen, Thor- 
grimsen, etc. 



2. From other tongues into Icelandic. 

101. The great question in the new Northern languages 
at to how foreign words should be written, was quite settled 
in the Old Norse; they were always written according to the 
pronunciation they received when embodied into the tongue; 
from this rule there is not to be found a single exception, 
e. g. tafla from tabula, djakn (djakni) diaconus, pistill epistola, 
postuli apostolus, biblia (fern, sing.), messa from missa, salmr 



FROM OTHER TONGUES INTO ICELANDIC. 47 

from psalmus. This fundamental rule has luckily also been 
steadily followed by all good Icelandic writers up to the 
present day, e. g. by Bishop Hannes Finnsson, and Councillor 
Magnus Stephensen, who are still living in Iceland. 

102. In the case of c, Bjorn Haldorson, in his Icel. Lexicon, 
gives the rule, that it is used only in ck, but that foreign 
words which have c are written with ^ or s according to 
their pronunciation; for which he gives the following examples, 
Katekismus, (otherwise in Icel. fraeom), kontrakt, (otherwise 
samningr) klima (otherwise lopzlag), serimonia (otherwise 
kirkjusior), sitazia (otherwise tilvisan); So also prins from 
Fr. prince, dans Fr. danse, etc. (never prints, prinz, or prince.) 

For the Lat. ck, k is always written, e. g. kor chorus, 
kronika chronica, Kristr Christus, kristjan christianus, kristin 
christina, krisina. For Erench ch on the contrary usually sk, 
skatol, Skarlotta, maskina, but chocolade is written sukulaS. 

103. With t the rule is a little more uncertain, because 
the use of z is still unsettled; but it seems best (by rule 
49.), 1. to supply it always by z where it has the sound of 
s; e. g. spazia, visitazia, qvittanzia, ordinanzia, konferenzraS, 
porzion (otherwise skamtr). 2. Only where it comes after c, 
it seems best to contract the two into x; thus lexia, axia, 
axion ; as the Romans did in cases where they used the same 
pronunciation, flecto, flexi, flexus, and flexio, (for flect-si, flect- 
sus, and flect-sio) ; otherwise we ought to write lekzia, akzia, 
akzion. 3. But where a short vowel goes before, and it has 
the sound of ts, it is always written in the same way; e. g. 
Reformatsion (siSaskipti), konfirmatsion (staSfesting); th is trea- 
ted like ch, and is supplied in sound by /, e. g. tron (other- 
wise haseeti) throne. 

104. Consequently ph must be supplied among the Ice- 
landers, as among the Italians, Spaniards etc., by f; e. g, fysik 
filosofi, which however seldom comes into question, for the 
Iceland, words are always used in preference, natturufraefti ; 
heimspeki, heimspekingr Philosopher, heimspekligr philosophic, 
etc. There are in general very few foreign words, w T hich have 



48 TRANSITION OF WORDS. 

been taken into Icelandic, e. g. hatign is said for Majesty, 
haskoli, (Highschool) , for University, bokahirsla for Library, 
bokavorSr for Librarian, stafrof alphabet, skaldskapr poetry, 
triiarbrogS religion, holdgan (holdtaka, holdtekja) incarnation, 
guSfraeSi theology, guftafroeSi mythology, atsetr resident, atfero" 
(atferli) method, siSferSi morality, hugarfar, character. 

105. The common changes which foreign words undergo, 
are beside chiefly these ; 

a) they are often contracted, so that a short vowel falls 
away , e. g. tempra tempero, h'na linea, regla regula, mus- 
teri monasterium, temple, munkr also mukr (otherwise hrein- 
lifismaSr) monacus, klerkr clericus,, kapteinn (otherwise hun- 
draSshofSingi or skipherra) capitaneus, lojtnant Fr. Lieutenant. 

b) The first toneless syll. is often cast away, e. g. spitali 
spital, Hannes Johannes, (otherwise contracted to Jon). Ras- 
mus Erasmus, dati (soldati anciently malamaSr) soldat, postuli 
Apostle, biskup Episcopus. 

c) But little regard is paid in general to the gender of the 
word in its original tongue, when they denote lifeless things; 
e.g. partr (hluti), punktr, spegill, sedill, kanall, are masc; as 
well as annall, titill, (nafnbot), eingill, sirkill, st^ll; planeta 
(reikandi stjarna, reikistjarna)^ kometa (halastjarna), kronika, 
biblia, (ritning-in) , on the other hand are fern, like natiira 
(edli), persona (maor), and bestia (qvikindi); and nummer, 
attest, instrux, neuter. 



SECOND PART. 

The System of Inflection. 



CHAPTER V. 



OJf Substantive g. 



106. In the Old Norse, as in all other Gothic tongues, the 
declensions are harder and more artificial than the conju- 
gations; the substantives, or denominatives, in particular have 
a very complex method of inflection. They are divided among 
the three usual genders , Masc. Fern, and Neut. , and express 
two Numbers, Sing, and PL, with four cases or relations in 
each. Moreover when the article, as in Swedish , is affixed, 
both it and the subst. keep their inflections, so that in this 
case one and the same word is doubly declined. These in- 
flections are denoted by endings, contractions, and change of 
vowel. 

1. Declension without the Article. 

107. The nouns subst. distribute themselves in regard to 
Inflection into two main classes; the one is declined simply 
and uniformly, the other distinguishes a greater number of 
endings by more artificial and harder rules. But even in one 
and the same class all words are not declined alike, we must 
therefore assume several declensions or methods of inflection 
under each. The simpler Class is distinguished by containing 
only words ending in a vowel ; the more artificial on the other 
hand consists of such as end in a consonant. In each of these 

4 



50 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

divisions the words are again distributed according to their gender* 
e. g. hjarta and saga belong both to the simple system, but 
are nevertheless inflected quite differently, because the former 
is neut. the latter fern. So also akur field, and lifur liver, 
belong both to the more artificial system, but are differently 
inflected because the former is masc. the latter fern. To the 
simpler Class belong all neuters and fern, in a, together with 
all masc. in i; to the more artificial all other subst., as neut. 
and fern, in i, all monosyllables with accented vowels, and all 
words ending in consonants of whatever gender. It is thus 
indispensable, in order to fix the Class, and particularly the 
Declension under which each word is ranged, to know its 
gender. 

108. To give sure rules for gender is as impossible in 
this, as in the other Gothic and in the Sclavonic tongues; it 
may however be remarked 1. in regard to ending, that masc. 
may end in i, r, I, n or s; though all such are not necessarily 
of that gend. All subst in a are fem. e. g. bylgja billow, 
koma coming, raena sense, etc., with the exception only of 
herra master, Lord, and some Prop. Names which are masc. 
e. g. Sturla, Oraekja; together w T ith the few neuters which 
come under the first Decl. Most monosyll. subst. the vowel 
of which is o are also fem. e. g. grof a ditch, grave, for a 
faring, vok a hole in ice, skor a stairstep', though here also 
some neut. must be excepted: e. g. fjor lifestrength, bol bale, 
troll troll, kjor choice, qvold (for gveld) eventide. All mono- 
syll. subst. having the vowel a but not ending in r, I, n or s, 
are neut. e. g. malt, land, haf, lag, a layer etc. 

109. 2. From the meaning scarcely any other rule can 
be formed, than that the names of the duties and employments 
of men are masc, and those of women fem. ; e. g. konungr, 
hofdingi chief, headman, prestr priest, Jrsell thrall, drottning 
queen, ljosa midwife, ambatt sheslave. 

110. 3. From the formation of words on the other hand 
it is easy to find out the gend. of most deriv. and comp. 
since e. g. all those in domr, ungr, ingr, ingi, leikr, skapr, naSr, 



DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 51 

art, and andi are masc; all in ting, ing, un, a, 5 (d t), ska, 
sla, dtta, and most in an, ni, fern.; and those in dami, indi, 
and erni neut. Comp. words keep always the gend. of their 
last part, which also holds good of the names of countries and 
towns, e. g. Polinaland Poland, pyzkaland Germany, are neut. 
Noregr (Norvegr) Norway, masc, Danmork Denmark fern, as 
well as Svif)j6d Sweden, while Sviariki is neut. HeiSabaer 
is masc, but Slesvik fern., Lundun London neut. pi. Uppsalir 
masc. pi. Kanlarabyrgi Canterbury neut. sing. Mikligaror 
Constantinople masc. Edinaborg Edinburgh fern, because land 
riki andbyrgi areneutr.; vegr, baer, salr, and gardr masc; and 
mork, fjod, vik and borg fern, (see farther on this point Part. 
3. Formation of Words.) 

111. An important source for discovering the gend. of Ice- 
land, words is to be found, 

4. In the kindred tongues. From Swed. in particular we 
know the neut., which are by much the most common; masc. 
and fern, on the contrary are in that language in a state of 
much greater confusion, so that it seems better in the present 
condition of the tongue, to assume one common gend. instead 
of the two. The Dialect of the common people in all three 
realms is a still more important help than that of the higher 
classes, because the personal genders are more accurately 
distinguished in it, and this in such strict accordance with the 
Icel., that, in Funen at least, hardly one word in a hundred 
can be excepted, that has changed its original gend. in the 
speech of the lower classes. 

112. As exceptions from agreement with Swed. we may 
remark that, n^ra kidney, skald, vor spring, sumar summer, 
haust autumn, milti spleen, hunang honey, edik vinegar, and 
kalk lime, port, plaz, place, are neut.; log, law, jol Yule, laun 
pay, reward, are neut pi. ; but the sing. hliS a wiket or grate 
neut.; while hli5 a side is fem. egg an egg is neut; but 
egg an edge fem. 

113. Of all gend the neut. (or no-sex) is the simplest and 
so to speak the most steadfast, which has maintained itself 

4* 



52 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

longest in the language. The masc. (he -sex) again is most 
akin to the neut. and seems to have been immediately devel- 
oped out of it; the fern, (she -sex) is both in inflection and 
formation most separate from the other two. They seem 
therefore both in IceL, and in other kindred tongues, to be 
most correctly treated of in the order given above. Of the 
cases the ace. is always most like the nom., next follows 
the dat., and last of all the gen., which has most peculiarities. 
This arrangement seems, both in regard to the mutual Etymo- 
logical relation of the forms, and the philosophical meaning 
thereby denoted, to be the best, not only in Icel., but also in 
Germ, and all Gothic and Slavonic tongues, as well as in 
Greek and Latin, or the so called Thracian (Phrygian) 
languages. 

114. According to the principles of division above given, 
(Two head classes and three genders in each), the declensions 
ought to be six; indeed the simpler class cannot possibly be 
divided otherwise, but in the more artificial the masc. and 
fern, have an inflection so complicated, that it seems better for 
the sake of greater clearness, to divide each of these into two 
declensions; the whole number thus becomes eight, the regular 
inflections of which may be seen in the following table. 





Simpler 


system. 






1 




2 




3 


Sing. 


Neut. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Nom. 


— 


a 


— 


i 


— a 


Ace. 


— 


a 


_. 


a 


+ u 


Dat. 


— . 


a 


— 


a 


4- u 


Gen. 

PlllT. 


— 


a 


— 


a 


+ u 


r iur. 
Nom. 


+ 


u 


— 


ar 


-I- ur 


Ace. 


+ 


u 


— 


a 


•+- ur 


Dat. 


+ 


um 


+ 


um 


-f- um 


Gen. 


__ 


na 


— 


a 


— na 



DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 53 







More artificial system. 








4 




5 6 






7 


8 


Sing. 


Neat. 

— » 


17 


Masc. 


M 




» 


Fern. 


Nom. 





Ace. 


» 


» 




» 




« 


V 


Dat. 


— i 


(0 


+ 


i 




(«) 


V 


Gen, 


— s 


— s 


+ 


ar 


+ 


ar 


+ r, £ 


Plur. 
















Nom. 


+ » 


— ar 


+ 


ir 


+ 


ir 


■+■ r 


Ace. 


+ » 


— a 


— 


u, i 


+ 


ir 


+ r 


Dal. 


+ um 


+ um 


— 


um 


— 


um 


— um 


Gen. 


— a 


— a 


4- 


a 


+ 


a 


+ a 



ar 



The endings marked + are those which require besides a 
change in the vowel of the chief syll. ; should any one regard 
the four last decl. as too like one another to be separated, 
the 5th and 6th, and 7th and 8th, need only be joined so as to 
make together two classes under one decl.; in which case 
the agreement between the two head classes; as well as that 
with the other Gothic tongues becomes more plain, without 
at the same time any disturbance in the system. 

115. The agreement with the Angl. Sax. system of decl. 
is evident; the declensions also of the Germ., the Moesogothic? 
and other old Germ, dialects answer very exactly to those of 
the Old Norse, though the conflicting views of different writers 
(Adelungs and Zahns) make the likeness less striking. For 
the sake of easiness in comparison I will present the follow- 
ing table. 



Icel. 


Germ. 


Moesogoth. 




1 


das ohr (6) 


hairto 


heart. 


2 


\ der affe (4) 
i der funke (5) 


ahma 


breath. 


3 


die welle(7) 


gajuko 


likeness 


4 


das buch (2) 


vaurd 


word 


5j 
61 


der fisch (1) 


\ vigs 
\ sunus 


way 
son 


w 


die bank (3) 


i staua 
J magaj) 


right 
maid 



54 



DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 



116. Even the endings themselves have a great likeness 
to those of other tongues ; the gen. in s is the Swed. and 
Dansk s, Germ, es, s, Lat. is, Grk. os; the dat. in e answers 
to the Germ. dat. in e, Lat. in i and abl. in e, Grk. in 2; the 
dat. pi. in um to the Germ, en, Swed. om in adverbs, as 
stundom sometimes, etc.; the gen. pi. in a to the Swed. com- 
pounds in which the first part ends in a, e. g. gudaldra, 
etc. , the Neut. have always the nom. and ace. alike as in 
Greek and Lat., and besides all fern, have the nom. and ace. 
alike in the pi. 



Simpler Class. 
117. The first Decl. contains all neut. in a, e.g. auga eye, 



hjarta heart, which are thus inflected. 



Sing. 



Plur. 



Nom, 

Ace. 

Dat. 

Gen. 

Nom. 

Ace. 

Dat. 

Gen. 



auga 

auga 

auga 

auga 

augu 

augu 

augum 

augna 



hjarta 

hjarta 

hjarta 

hjarta 

hjortu 

hjortu 

hjortum 

hjartna 



In the same way are declined eyra ear, lunga lung, eysta, 
testicle, hnoSa hall of thread, bjuga sausage, n^ra kidney, as 
well as some foreign words; e.g. manna, firma, and names of 
countries in a, which are however rare in old writers, who 
commonly add the word land, and also in modern authors, 
who often make them fern. 

118. The reason of the vowel change in the pi. is the 
ending, of which mention has been already made (74.); it 
however takes place only in the w r ord hjarta, because none 
of the others have a in the chief syll. Manna is used only 
in the sing., liingun and Indiun (otherwise Indialand) rather in 
the pi. with the art. The object of the n inserted before the 
a in the gen. pi. seems to be, to distinguish this case from 
the nom. sing. 



SIMPLER CLASS. 55 

119. The second Decl. embraces all masc. in i; e.g. geisli 
sunbeam, andi spirit, breath, raeningi robber, eigandi owner, 
which are thus inflected 



Sing. Nom. geisli 


andi 


Ace. geisla 


anda 


Dat. geisla 


anda 


Gen. geisla 


anda 


Plur. Nom. geislar 


andar 


Ace. geisla 


anda 


Dat. geislum 


ondum 


Gen. geisla. 


anda. 



In the same way are inflected; dropi a drop, tingi the young 
of animals particularly fowl, bogi bow, risi giant, skuggi 
shadow, naiingi neighbour, ecki woe (poet.), maki mate, kappi 
champion, felagi fellow, nagli nail, api ape, asni ass, angi 
steam, savour, |>anki thought, tangi a point or tongue of land. 



Sing. Nom. 


raeningi 


eigandi 


Ace. 


raeningja 


eiganda 


Dat. 


raeningja 


eiganda 


Gen. 


raeningja 


eiganda 


Plur. Nom. 


raeningjar 


eigendr 


Ace. 


raeningja 


eigendr 


Dat. 


raeningjum 


eigendum (ondum) 


Gen. 


rseningja. 


eigenda (anda). 



In the same way are inflected hofSingi, frelsingi and ley- 
singi freedman, vili will, domandi doomer, biiandi yeoman, 
elskandi lover, iSkandi worshipper, illvirki illdoer, einheri Odin's 
warrior, skipveri shipman, eyskeggi islander, lesandi reader, 
saekjandi suer, verjandi warder, hallandi slope. 

120. Dissyllabic words which have a in the first syll. change 
this into o before u, i. e. in the dat. pi. Those which have 
dng, or dnk, change this in the same case into aung, aunk, 
e. g. vangi cheek, jawbone, dat. pi. vaungum ; panki |>aunkum, 
etc., but a by itself remains unchanged, maki pi. makar straddl- 
ing, dat. makum. 

Trisyllabic words, which have a in the two first syll., change 
the first into o the second into u, before the ending um; e. g. 



56 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

bakari baker, pi. bakarar, dat. bdkurum. If they have a in the 
middle syll. only, this is still changed into u, e. g. domari, pi. 
domarar, dat. ddmurum; so also lesari, kennari teacher, els- 
kari, etc. But if the first syll. has a and the second another 
vowel, no change takes place, e. g. naungi, pi. naungar, dat. 



121. Those which insert,/ before the ending are, all in 
ingi, and some few beside, which all have weak vowels in 
the penultimate. 

122. Like eigandi are declined all pres. part. act. when used 
as subst. to denote an agent; they are met with most often in 
the pi. Even those which express something lifeless , and 
answer to the Swed. neut. uppforande, afseende, etc., are here 
all masc. , and follow the same inflection, but are used only 
in the sing. e.g. talandi gift of speech, togandi anything slow, 
tildragandi, inducement, etc. The word buandi is commonly 
contracted into bondi, pi. bcendr, bcendum, bcenda. Fjanda a 
foe, fiend, is inflected like eigandi, but may also be declined 
like andi. Frsendi, pi. fraendr is regular, as also Jjraendr (pro 
Tronder), a Norse tri be from which Trondhem takes its 
name; this word comes from the male name prandr. 

123. The word herra diners only in the nom. from geisli, 
as also sira * which however is not used in the pi. and endir 
end which in old writers is met with regular endi etc. 



* 



This word is used only in Priest's titles before the name, e. g. 
Sira Arni. "The Revd. Mr. Arne." The Councillor M. Stephensen 
indeed in his "Gaman og Alvara." "Jest and Earnest" p. 79 
seq. has sought to throw it out of the tongue as laughable, 
because it is only used in French in conversation with Kings 
and Princes. But in this I can in no wise agree with the 
learned writer; its use must not be ascribed to an exaggerated 
respect for the Catholic priesthood, because it is never used 
of Bishops , who are called Herra Lord a word expressing 
a much higher rank. Its meaning also in French can hardly 
be taken into consideration when the question is of Icelandic: 



SIMPLER CLASS. 57 

124. Some few old poetic words take in the pi. endings 
nar instead of ar, e. g. gumi a man, (whence our groom, prop- 
erly goom, in Bridegroom), pi. gumnar, yet gumar is also found, 
and the inserted n has without doubt its origin in the gen. 
gumna, whence it has crept into the other cases. According 
to the Msesogothic, Allemannic, and Anglo-Sax. the gen. pi. in 
the simpler class ought always to end in na, w T hich is also 
actually the case in neut. and fern, which are much the most 
frequent; but in the masc. again this n has fallen out. The 
true original inflection would thus seem to have been; 

Nom. gumar 

Ace. guma 

Dat. gumum 

Gen. gumna. 

But the common is gumnar, gumna, gumnum, gumna; so 
also skatnar, gotnar, bragnar, which all mean men, warriors, 
together with flotnar sear over s ; from oxi also (for uxi) the 
gen. pi. oxna is found. 

the Engl, queen is the highest title Avhile the Dansk qvind is 
a term of coarse abuse (conf. Engl, quean); the Icel. kona and 
Dansk hone are so honourable that they are often said of 
Queens instead of wife, but the Swed. kona is contemptuous. 
The case is the same with the Germ, gemehi and the Dansk 
gemen, etc., which does not all hinder the use of these words 
in each of these several language, without any regard to their 
meanings in another. Moreover the Icel. sira should not doubt- 
less be derived from the French sire, but be taken as the 
Engl, sire i. e. Father. The common people as is well known 
still use the word Father in addressing Priests all over Den- 
mark and Norway. Besides the word sira is by no means an 
Icel. invention but has long ago had its present received sense 
in Norway also; e. g. it occurs twice in a letter of the year 
1297. (Diplomatarium Arn. Magn. vol. II. p. 190.), and is again 
found in a document of the year 1445. which is quoted in 
Lund's "Forsog til en Beskrivelse over ovre Tellemarken" p. 156. 
It were to be wished that no word was used in Icel. which 
had a worse descent than this, 



58 DECLENSION OF SUBSSTANTIVES. 

., e. g. tunga, 



125. All fem. in a follow the t 


hird Dec 


saga, kyrkja, lina, line 




Sing. Nom. tunga 


sagu 


Ace. tungu 


sogu 


Dat. tungu 


sogu 


Gen. tungu 


sogu 


Plur. Nom. tungur 


sogur 


Ace. tungur 


sogur 


Dat. tungum 


sogum 


Gen. tungna. 


sagna. 



In the same way are declined; dMadove, |mfa hillock, grima 
mash, villa error, qviga heifer, vika week , pipa pipe, perla 
pearl, gata path, flaska flask, staka verse, haka chin, vala 
spaewife, skata ray (fish), langa ling (fish) ganga going, 



Sing. Nom. kyrkja 


lina 


Ace. kyrkju 


h'nu 


Dat. kyrkju 


linu 


Gen. kyrkju 


lmu 


Plur. Nom. kyrkjur 


linur 


Ace. kyrkjur 


linur 


Dat. kyrkju m 


linum 


Gen. kyrkna. 


lina. 


In the same way are declined, eckja widow, reckja bed, 


manneskja mankind, haekja crutch, sylgja umbrella, fylgja 


ghost, ylgja she elk, bylgja billow, 


lilja lilly, gryfja mine, feija 


ferry, gySja goddess, kanna can, 


skepna creature, vara ware, 


tinna flint. 





126. By this Deck are inflected all infln. in a, which are used 
as subst., e. g. vera being, brenna burning, and in general all 
fem. in a; names of countries also, especially in the modern 
language; e. g. Evropa (NorSurhalfan) Affrika (SuSurhalfan) 
Amerika (Vesturhalfan) etc. 

127. That ganga makes gaungu etc. has been already men- 
tioned (74. 78.) vala, volu is also found as volva volvu etc. 

128. Words ending in na and ja before which g and k do 
take no n in the gen. pi. The words kona and 



MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 59 

qvinna wife, woman, have both qvenna in the gen. pi. but are 
otherwise regular. 

129. Many of these words are used only in the pi., e. g. 
maetur (hafa msetur a einhverju to set store on aught), gaetur 
watch, care, fortolur talking over, atolur curses, reproaches, 
likur guesses, hserur gray hairs etc. 



More artificial Class. 

130. According to the fourth Decl. are inflected all neut. 
that end in consonants, or in i, or which are monosyllabic; 
e. g. skip ship, land land, sumar summer, qvaeSi song, chaunt, 
merki standard, tre tree. 

Sing. N. A. skip land sumar 

landi sumri 

lands sumars 

lur. N. A. skip lond sumur 

londum sumrum 

landa. sumra. 

So also are inflected: bor5 board, table, stri5 war, mal 
measure, bu grange, farmhouse, stra straw, frse seed, hey hag, 
gler glass, haf sea, lamb lamb, blaS leaf blade, ax ear of corn, 
vatn water, tjald tent, gras grass, glas a glass, hofuS head, 
klaustur cloister, f65ur food, fodder, silfur silver, norSur the 
north, hulstur, holster, veSur weather, mastur mast {of a ship). 
Sing. N. A. qvseSi merki tre 

Dat. qva?5i merki tre 

Gen. qvaeSis merkis tres 

Plur. N. A. qvseSi merki tre 

Dat. qvaeSum merkjum trjam 

Gen. qvaeSa. merkja. trjaa. 

In the same way go, klaefri clothing, epli apple, enni brow, 
viti punishment, frelsi freedom, ackeri anchor, gsedi goods, ey- 
rindi errand, riki realm, fylki province, virki wall, vigi breast- 
work, nes a ness, sker scar, kyn &m, se#, rif rib, kne Awee, 
hie shade, lee, spe yee? 4 , derision. 



N. A. 


skip 


Dat. 


skipi 


Gen. 


skips 


N. A. 


skip 


Dat. 


skipum 


Gen. 


skip a. 



60 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

131. Even in this method of inflection there are already 
greater difficulties, though it is the simplest of the more com- 
plex class. The change of vowel has been before spoken of. 
(74. 78). Contraction takes place only in those cases where 
the ending begins with a vowel, e.g. mastr-i, mostr-um, mastr-a, 
the words heraS, hundraS, 6Sal, are never contracted, but in 
other respects follow sumar, thus dat. sing. heraSi, dat. pi. he- 
ruftum, etc. Those in ss, or s after a consonant, take no new 
$ in the gen., e. g. hross, ax, and the like. 

132. Those in i take no new i in the dat. but are other- 
wise regular, yet so that those the characteristic letter of which 
is g or Je, insert j before the endings um and a; this j is 
heard indeed in all cases of the word, so that the sound is 
merki merkis, or merkji merkjis, but is not usually written 
before i (39). Some other words which end in conson. also 
insert j in the same cases; such are all those which have, 
simple weak vowels (41.), and simple cons, at their close, 
e. g. sel sheepfold, seljum, selja, and also men necklace, skegg 
beard, |)il panelling, etc. 

133. Some few with hard vowels, especially b, insert j 
before the endings which begin with a vowel, fjor lifestrength, 
fjorvi, fjorvum, fjorva, so also skrok prating, nonsense, mjol, 
sol a land of eatable seaweed, etc.; but this is not so strictly 
observed as the insertion ofj. 

134. Hie and spe are never used in the pi.; fe goods, 
cattle, fee, has in the gen. sing, fjar, but is inflected in the pi. 
like tre; ve halidome, temple, house, is declined in the sing. 
like tre, in the pi. like skip, as are also the names of the let- 
ters in e, the rest are declined like skip. 

135. Other irregulars are especially; ' laeti character, bear- 
ing, which makes its dat. pi. latum, gen. lata; megin might, 
regin the godlike powers, rekin neat, take the vowel a (o) when 
they are contracted; e.g. dat. pi. rognum, gen. sagna (whence 
ragna-rockur twilight of the Gods.) The new word altari 
(stalli) altar, follows this deck in the sing., but in the pi. it 
makes olturu (or oltoru) olturum, altara. 



MORE COMPLEX €LASS. 61 

136. Some others change their gend. to fern, in the pi. and 
are then declined according to the seventh decl. c. g. lim twig, 
pi. limar, boughs; tal cheating, pi. talar; eingi a mead, eingjar; 
smiSi smithy, sraiSar; mund any point of time, mundir; |>usund 
thousand, jmsundir. Most of these words however are found 
perfect in both gend., but the inflection here given is the most 
common. The word fraeSi knowledge is in the sing. fern, and in- 
dee^ in the pi. on the other hand neut. and declined like qvae<5i. 

137. Many are found both with and without i in the nom.; 
e. g. fullting and fulltingi help, haensn and haensni hen; rensl 
and rensli, a drain, sluice; as also all deriv. in si (sli), the 
latter form seems more common in the pi., and in the modern 
tongue. 

138. The fifth Decl. embraces all masc. which end in the 
gen. in s; in the nom. it has the following endings r, I, n and 
s, e. g. komingr Icing, hamar hammer, laeknir leech, dalr dale. 

Sing. Nom. konungr hamar 

Ace. konung hamar 

Dat. konungi hamri 

Gen. konungs hamars 

Plur. Nom. konungar hamrar 

Ace. konunga hamra 

Dat. komingum homrum 

Gen. konunga. hamra. 

In the same way are declined, hestr horse, eldr fire, ddmr 
doom, brunnr spring, (burn), f>raell thrall, stoll stool, seat, 
steinn stone, sveinn stripling, akur field, aldur age, aptan even, 
morgun morn, drottin Lord, chief, kaSall cable, jokull iceberg, 
biSill woer, lover. 



Sing. Nom. 


laeknir 


dalr 


Ace. 


laekni 


dal 


Dat. 


laekni 


dal 


Gen. 


laeknis 


dais 


Plur. Nom. 


laeknar 


dalir 


Ace. 


laekna 


dali 


Dat. 


lseknum 


dolum 


Gen. 


laekna. 


dala. 



62 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

In the same way are inflected, vi'Sir withy, J)yrnir thorn, 
einir juniper, reynir rowan, skelmir rogue, lettir easiness, mis- 
sir loss, maelir measure, bushel, hvalr whale, bolr bole, hver 
hot spring, ljar sickle, scythe, stafr staff, tySr folk, smiSr smith, 
hagr condition, affairs. 

139. Some words which end in I, n or s after a cons., or 
in double s, take no r in the nom., and so have none to cast 
away in the ace, but are otherwise regular; e. g. fugl fowl, 
karl man carle, hrafn raven, (Dansk ravn), vagn carriage, 
wain, hals neck, lax salmon, kross cross,, foss or fors a force, 
waterfall, krans garland, etc. There are also some other 
words which do not take r in the nom., e. g. daun smell, 
Jjon servant, these are in consequence alike in the nom. and 
ace; the case is the same with those in r, s, after a diph- 
thong, e. g. bas crib, hnaus turf sod, leir clay, aur w^tf: the 
old writers often used rr, ss, to meet the pronunciation, e. g. 
hnauss, aurr, etc., and thus distinguished the nom. from the 
ace. , but confounded on the other hand the nom. with the gen., 
in words in s, which case however had still a separate sound, 
because the diphthong by means of the double cons, becomes 
shorter and harder in the gen. ; those in actual ss, or s in po- 
sition, take no new s in the gen. 

140. Among the words which follow konungr are many 
monosyil., which take no i in the dat. and particularly those 
in 11, and ingr, those in r, s, after a diphthong, and those which 
have a simple cons, with r after a diphthong; e. g. holl a 
mound, hill, haell heel, hri'ngr ring, as well as fatseklingr a 
needy man, kor choir, mur wall, is ice, 6s rivermouth, draumr 
dream, batr boat, hriitr ram, etc.; yet they sometimes take i 
(those in r alone excepted) when they stand alone, and have 
much weight in the sentence e. g. l draumi in a dream, baerinn 
stendr a holi, the grange stands on a rise, but a hafum hdl. 
on a high hill. Those in nn are quite regular. 

141. LI and nn after a diphthong are properly a contr. of/r, 
nr, (93) and the words which end thus ought to cast away one 
/ and n in the cases where r ( the sign of the masc. ) would 



MORE COMPLFX CLASS. 63 

otherwise be dropped. The case is the same with ss, rs, which 
however is only an old orthography (93. 193.) Great care must 
be taken not to confound this r, which in old writers is dou- 
bled in the nom., is essential in the word, and kept in all in- 
flections, with the non-essential r which is only a masc. sign, 
never doubled in nom., and invariably falls away in inflection; 
e. g. |)6r Thor, sur sourness, and her host, army, have essen- 
tial, but Freyr, skor shoe, hor (hofr) pothook, on the contrary 
non-essential r ; we find therefore J)6rr, herr, etc., but never 
Freyrr skorr. The declension is accordingly ; 
Nom. hrafn kross t>6r hsell Freyr 

Ace. hrafn kross J)6r haell Frey 

Dat. hrafni krossi |)6r hsel Frey 

Gen. hrafns. kross. J)6rs. haels. Freys 

The genitive ending s is never widened to es, is, or the 
like, however hard the consonants meeting together may be, 
on the other hand the pronunciation is often softened by leav- 
ing out one of the cons. (59). 

142. Those dissyll. words which have a simple vowel in 
their last syll. are contracted in cases the ending of which 
begins with a vowel ; e. g. lykill hey, dat. lykli, pi. lyklar, etc. ; 
Jotun giant, dat. jotni, pi. jotnar, jotna, jotnum; morgun (mor- 
gin, myrgin), dat. morgni or morni etc. Those in / have this 
letter always doubled (according to pron. and analogy), instead 
of Ir in the nom.; thus hefill 'plane, aungull angle, hook ; those 
in n, r, take on the other hand simple n and r, and are con- 
sequently alike in the nom. and ace. By an old orthography 
however nn, rr, are often found in the nom., e. g. himinn 
heaven, aptann, jotunn, jaSarr selvage, akurr, etc., but this is 
seldom strictly observed, and seems as needless as ss, rr, in 
monosyll. (139). Bikar bicker, beaker, nykur nixe, kelpy, are 
not contracted, nor foreign words, as generall (hershofSingi) etc. 

143. By an old orthography r is also often found alone for 
ur (especially in the ace), but since words in ur agree entirely 
with those in ar, un, in, and an, and this ur is an essential 
syll. in the word, which is contracted indeed but never falls 
away, and is also kept (as er) in the new tongues, e. g. aldur 



64 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

Swed. alder , Dansk alder , sigur Swed. seger, Dansk sejer, 
hlatur laughter, Dansk latter, etc.; this way of writing seems 
more incorrect than urr. Besides it is misleading because by 
it this ending may be easily confounded with non-essential r, 
which is the masc. sign, and falls away in inflection and in 
the new tongues, e. g. hlatur, heifrur honour, hafur hegoat, 
have the essential syll. ur, and are declined like hamar, but 
batr, boat, eiSr oath, rafr amber, (Dansk rav), the non-essen- 
tial ending r, and are declined like konungr or Freyr. 

144. Those in ir have also another method of inflection by 
which ir is kept in all cases before the ending; these are 

never contracted. 

.,■* '• . - -v 

145. Those which form the pi. in ir have many peculia- 
rities; viz, most of them do not take i in the dat., there are 
however some exceptions, e. g. gestr guest, brestr weakliness, 
qvistr branch, (which last often makes another ace. pi. qvistu). 
Others insert j before the endings which begin with a vowel, 
but this j before i is expressed only by i; e. g. hylr a gulf, 
pi. hylir, ace. hyli, dat. hyljuni, gen. hylja; so also bylr windy 
weather along with rain or snow ; but after g andj k the 
accent also is left out; e. g. seckr sack, pi. seckir, secki, 
seckjum, seckja. So also seggr brave man, dreingr thane, 
|)veingr shoe-string , very few insert v before the endings 
which begin with a vowel, e. g. hjor sword poet., dative 
hjorvi etc. 

146. Gu5, which wants r in the nom., and makes in the 
pi. guSir gods, and dagr which in dat. sing, makes degi, pi. dagar 
etc., are irregular; blastur blast makes, besides its common 
regular inflection, another dat. blaestri; bogr a shoulder besides 
its regular inflect, like konungr, has also baegi in the dat., 
and in the pi. baegir, bogu, bogum, bogu, in old writers; but 
I doubt whether bosgir is any where to be found in the 
nom. sing., which Bjorn Halldorson quotes in his Diet.; spann 
(sponn) spoon, chip, makes in the dat. spaeni, pi. spaenir, spanu 
(or spaeni) spanum, spana ; eyrir money, pence, is declined like 
laeknir, only with change of vowel in the pi. aurar, aura, 



MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 



65 



aurum, aura; leikr like konungr when it means game, sport, 
but like dalr when it means draughts (the game); her makes 
in the gen. hers, old. herjar, (whence alls-herjar) pi. herar 
(old herir), but is seldom used in the pi. 

Still more irregular are skor shoe, ketill kettle, dor (dorr) 
spear, poet. ma5r man, fingur finger, which are thus inflected; 



Sing. Nom. skor 


ketill 


dorr 


maSr 


fingur 


Ace. sko 


ketil 


dor 


mann 


fingur 


Dat. sko 


katli 


dor 


manni 


fingri 


Gen. skos 


ketils 


dors 


manns 


fingurs 


Plur. Nom. skor (skuar) 


katlar 


derir 


menn 


fingur 


Ace. sko (skua) 


katla 


deri 


menn 


fingur 


Dat. skom 


kotlum 


dorum 


monnum 


fingrum 


Gen. skoa (skua) 


katla 


darra 


manna 


fingra. 


Foreldrar parents, paskar Easter 


, (old paskir-nar 


fern.) and 


tdfrar witchcraft, are used only in 


the pi. 







147. Some in r especially deriv. in leikr, sometimes change 
r into i and are then inflect, after the second decl.; e.g. sann- 
leikr and sannleiki truth probability, likamr (lik-hamr) and 
likami body, (yet in the pi. commonly likamir); the last forms 
in i seem properly to belong to the modern language. 

148. All masc. of which the gen. sing, ends in ar follow 
the seventh Declension , they have in the nom. the endings r 
and n; e. g. drattr drawing, vollr field , skjoldr shield, vifrc 
tree, wood, bragr poem, belgr bellorvs, inflated skin. 



Sing. 


Nom. 


drattr 


vollr 


skjoldr 




Ace. 


dratt 


voll 


skjold 




Dat. 


draetti 


velli 


skildi 




Gen. 


drattar 


vallar 


skjaldar 


Plur. 


Nora. 


draettir 


vellir 


skildir 




Ace. 


drattu 


vollu 


skjoldu 




Dat. 


drattum 


vollum 


skjoldum 




Gen. 


dratta 


valla 


skjalda. 


In the same way are declined, 


£attr episode, story, hattr 


character, maltr might 


, frradr thread, sonr 


(son) son, goltr 
5 



66 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

boarpig, vondr wand, knottr ball, borkr bark, kottr cut, fjorflr 
frith, hjortr hart, kjolr keel, mj65r mead, bjorn foar. 



£. Nom. 


vi5r 


bragr 


belgr 


Ace. 


vi5 


brag 


belg 


Dat. 


vi& 


brag 


belg 


Gen. 


viSar 


bragar 


belgjar 


•. Nom. 


viSir 


bragir 


belgir 


Ace. 


viSu 


bragi 


belgi 


Dat. 


vi6"um 


brogum 


belgjum 


Gen. 


vi5a 


braga 


belgja 



In the same way are declined; vegr way, feldr fell, cloak, 
siftr custom, li5r joint, smiSr smithy limr limb, litr hue, sj65r 
£a$r, purse, staSr ste#«?, matr raedtf, rettr right, law, vinr friend, 
hugr mind, sauftr r#m, munr difference, hlutr ^m#, hryggr 
£ac&, leggr /egr, /iwz5 , verkr pain, mergr marrow, dryckr 
drink, lsekr, beck, rivulet, reykr r<?e&, baer grange, hamlet. 

149. This whole Decl. seems to have had its origin in 
euphony, because it was wished to hinder ds, ts, and ns from 
meeting together especially after simple vowels. We here see 
very plainly the cause of the vowel changes in the Old Norse, 
viz, that it was wished to make the vowel of the chief syll. 
as like as possible that of the ending, or as it were to 
balance them one against the other; but the first is commonly 
the stronger o instead of u, e for i, etc. 

150. Some can take no r in the Nom. (comp. 139), and 
so remain alike both in the nom. and ace, thus orn eagle, and 
bjorn; for vinr and sonr vin and son are said, the latter espe- 
cially always in names; e. g. Isleifr Einarsson, Steingrimr 
Jonsson, Bjarni porsteinsson (never Einarssonr or the like). 
It is self evident that sonr changes its vowel in its own way, 
thus dat. syni etc. 

151 The pi. is formed from the dat. sing.; those words 
which never take i in the dat. sing, always end the ace. pi. 
in this vowel. Those which take u in the ace. pi., have be- 
sides this form also another in i formed from the nom. pi. in 



MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 67 

the usual way by throwing away r, and the same as the dat. 
sing. ; we may therefore also say \atti, syni, knetti, firfti, sifti, 
for fmttu, sonu, etc. 

152. Those which have the vowel i, are often found in 
the dat. without i; e. g. lit from litr, siS from siftr, (comp. 
140). The case is often the same in the more modern tongue 
with those which have 6 or jo before a simple cons. e. g. log 
for legi, mjoS for miSi, kjol for kili; as also vorS for verSi, 
from vorSr warder, probably to distinguish it from the dat. of 
verSr worth, and verftr a share of meat. 

1 53. All deriv. in -skapr and -nadr are inflect, in the sing. 
like viSr, in the pi. like bragr; e.g. fjandskapr foeship, lifnadr 
life; but the former seldom occur in the pi. : many of the lat- 
ter have a double form either in -nafir or -nuftr e. g. fagnaSr 
or fognuftr gladness, safna5r or sofnuSr meeting, assembly, 
manaSr or manuSr month, the ending -nvfir properly belongs 
to the new tongue; the inflection is the same except that the 
gen. always takes a, and the dat. pi. always w. 

154. Those which insert j in the gen. sing, insert it in 
fact every where in the pi.; before i it should be expressed 
by i, but since the grave accent is not wont to be written 
after g or k, and most of these w T ords are just those which 
have these letters before the ending; it seems always to fall 
away, if however the words byr fair-wind, styr war, unquiet, 
hyr fire poet., vefr web, etc., occur in the pi. they must be 
written, byrir_, vefir, etc. The word sjar (sjor) sea inserts f 
or v, and thus makes in the gen. sjafar pi. sjafir etc. These 
words are very seldom found in the dat. with the ending i, 
e. g. mergi or merg. 

155. Some few form the pi. in- ar; e. g. skogr wood, 
vindr, grautr, pap, gruel, which in the sing, are infl. like viSr, 
in the pi. like komingr; so also vegr way in old poetry; 
snjar (snjor) snow makes in the dat. snja (snjo), gen. snjafar, 
pi. snjafar, etc.; fiskr makes in the gen. sing, fiskjar or fisks. 
pi. fiskar. Some of the words which follow this dec!, are 
also found with s in the gen., especially in poetry, in compo- 

5* 



68 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

sition, in the new tongue, and in some adverbial expressions; 
e. g. in Grondal's excellent translation of Theocritus* Idyll. 

po getr samt |)in kracka karta 

komit til vegs, at morgu hjarta 

sar verfta fengin svell ok ill. 

"Yet canst thou though little 

strike many a heart 

with deep and heavy wounds," 

So also Norvegr makes always in the s;en. Norvegs (Nor- 
egs). jar5vegr mould jarSvegsy but vegr glance, glory, is in- 
flected like dalr, and is used only in the sing. In daily speech 
til friSs, til sjos, are still said, but stilla til friSar, fara til 
sjafar. From unaSr joy unaSs in found in poetry, which how- 
ever may be the gen. from the neut. unaS, which is sometimes 
met with, e. g. SolarljoS 71. Gripisspa 46. 

Other irregulars are in particular fotr foot, vetur winter, 
br66ir brother, faSir father, which are thus declined. 



Sing. Nom. 


fotr 


vetur 


broSir 


faSir 


Ace. 


fot 


vetur 


broftur 


foSur 


Dat. 


fseti 


vetri 


broSur 


f65ur 


Gen. 


folar 


vetrar 


broSur 


foftur 


Plur. Nom. 


faetr 


vetr 


braeftr 


fe5r 


Ace. 


faetr 


vetr 


braeSr 


fe5r 


Dat. 


fotum 


vetrum 


braeSrum 


feSrum 


Gen. 


fota 


vetra 


braeSra 


febra. 



f6ts, veturs, broSurs, and foSurs are also found in the gen. 
sing. Like broSir are inflected the two fern. moftir, dottir, which 
last however takes but one t in the pi., daetr, daetrum, daetra; 
and systir which can undergo no vowel change, but makes in 
the pi. systr, systrum, systra. 

156. To the seventh Deck belong those fern, which in the 
pi. end in -ir or -ar, in the sing. nom. they have all kinds of 
endings, e. g. eign owndom, property, vor lip, bruSr bride, 
drottning queen, veiSi fishing , fishery , ben (old) bane, death 
wound, (modern) scratch, which are thus inflected. 



MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 



69 



Sing. Nom. 


eign 


vor 


bni5r 


Ace. 


eign 


vor 


bru8i 


Dat. 


eign 


vor 


bruSi 


Gen. 


eignar 


varar 


bruSar 


Plur. N. A. 


eignir 


varir 


bruftir 


Dat 


eignum 


vorum 


bruoum 


Gen. 


eigna 


vara 


bruo"a. 



In the same way are declined dygb* virtue , doughtiness, 
ferS faring, journey, sjon sight, sokn parish, forn offering, au$n 
desert, pisl torture, gero* deed, gfof gift, grof, ditch, grave, 
rost old Norse mile, 6x1 shoulderblade , gjorft girdle, mjofrm 
Up, skomm shame, loss, hofn haven, byror burthen, and the 
Prop. Names Geror, Heior, Ur5r 3 pruor, (Gertrude) Sigri5r 
puridr, Gunnhilor. 



Sing. Nom. 


drottning 


ben 


veiSi 


Ace. 


drottning 


ben 


veiSi 


Dat. 


drottningu 


ben 


veifti 


Gen. 


drottningar 


benjar 


veiftar 


Plur. N. A. 


drottningar 


benjar 


veiSar 


Dat. 


drottm'ngum 


benjum 


veidum 


Gen. 


drottninga 


benja 


veiSa 



In the same way are declined, sigling sailing, djorfiing 
daring, hormung grief, woe, nal needle, 61 strap, tag withe, 
egg edge , kly f , hoof, nyt gain, increase of cattle , il sole (of 
the foot), naudsyn need, fit web foot, ermi sleeve, myri a moor 
Scot, moss., heiSi heath, lygi lie, festi fastening, eyri low 
headland. 



157. Like eign are declined all deriv. in n and d, as well 
as many primitives; among these are some which take u in 
the dat., and thus distinguish this case from the acc.j this 
takes place especially in those which end in S, d, or t, and 
the vowel of which is 6, or u, e.g. mold-u mould. |)jdo"-u folk, 
sott-u sickness, stund-u hour, ull-u wool, raust-u voice, but this 
is often disregarded by prose writers and in daily speech; 
the case is the same with those the vowel of which is b and 
their final cons. 5, or d, e. g. joro*-u earth, verold-u world, 



70 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

strond-u strand, but in these instances also it is not strictly 
attended to. 

158. Those which have the vowel o took in the oldest 
times the ending -ar in the pi. e. g. varar lips, grafar, hafnar, 
and this is probably the reason of the otherwise uncommon 
vowel change o into a (instead of e) before t , but the vowel 
once taken into the chief syll. has been kept though the end- 
ing has since been changed. The Plur. ending -ar for -ir is 
also found in many other cases in old poetry, e. g. run-ar for 
run-ir runes etc. 

159. In the oldest times there were also found many fern, 
in r, which have since lost this letter, or changed it for i, 
e. g. aeSr a vein, (Germ, die ader), afterwards ae5, elf river, 
afterwards elf, elfi, or elfa, which last is now general; byrdr 
afterwards byrSi (in pi. also byrSar), veior more latterly veiSi, 
heior heiSi, ermr ermi, etc., whence the Swed. forms elf, hed, 
arm, etc., like brud by throwing away r. 

160. Even of words in i there are some which form their 
pi. in ir, e. g. gleoi gladness, gleftir, aefi, life, age, sefir; these 
do not take ar in the gen. but remain undecl. in the sing, and 
end throughout in i. Some writers give them an s in the 
gen., but this is against the genius of the tongue, because 
no fern, ever ends in s in the gen. The incorrectness of this 
is plainly seen when the art. is added, before which the word 
always keeps its genitive ending. Now it is impossible to say 
glefiis-innar, or cefls-innar, but only gleSi-nnar, aefi-nnar. Most 
of these words are abstracts which have no pi., e. g. elli eld, 
old age, (Dansk selde.) Kristni Christianity, mildi mildness, 
rettvisi justice, beiSni desire, htyoni obedience, and many more. 

161. The word sal soul, makes in the dat. salu pi. salir, 
gen. pi. salna; in the sing, is found also sala, salu, by the 
3rd Deck; air buttermilk has no sing. 

162. Polysyllables in ul, ur, and the like, are contracted 
before the endings which begin with a vowel. Deriv. in an 
have also another form in un, both these are perfect in the 



MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 71 

sing, but that in un seems to belong especially to the new 
tongue, e. g. andvarpan sigh, fjdSur feather, alin ell, 

Sing. N. A. andvarpan -vorpun fjoSur alin 

Dat. andvarpan -vorpun fjoSur alin 

Gen. andvarpanar -vorpunar fjaSrar alnar 
Plur. N. A. andvarpanir fjaSrir alnir 

Dat. andvorpunum fjoSrum alnum 

Gen. andvarpana fjaSra alna. 

In the pi. the form in un (andvorpunir) seldom or never 
occurs; in the sing. Councillor Stephensen adopts the form in 
an only in the nom., and that in un in the other cases, but 
this distinction is observed by scarcely any other writer; ac- 
cording to vor the form in an ought only to be used in the 
gen., but instead of this unar is rather said in the gen., and 
an in the other cases. 

163. The Primitives which form their pi. in ar can only 
be distinguished by practice from those which take the ending 
ir; e. g. leid* a way, makes lei^ir, but skeib* shuttle, (in the 
old Norse loom) spoon, skeiSar; grein branch, paragraph, makes 
greinir, but hlein a post, weavers beam, hleinar; sal soul, makes 
salir, but nal needle, nalar, so also sin-ar sinew, hli5-ar side, 
seil-ar dragline. The ending ar is taken by all deriv. in ing, and 
ung, and by all those which insert j or v, by nearly all those in 
i, as well as by monosyll. ending in a vowel; e. g. ey (now 
eyja) island, mey maid, the old nom. of which was maer. 
Few or none of these primitives take the ending u in the dat. 
leiSu, sinu or the like are never said. 

164. Of those which insert j some are used only in the 
pi., e. g. menjar traces , refjar crafty shifts. Others which 
have the vowel 6 insert v, and thus do not change their 
vowel, e. g. or arrow, gen. orvar, pi. orvar, etc. So also 
dogg dew, st6(5, rather in the pi. stoSvar, place. Of those 
which insert j or v there are very few which are ever found 
with u in the dat., e. g. Hel makes Hel or Helju, or or or oru. 

165. Monosyll. words in a are contracted in the dat. and 
gen, to dr (for dar), dat, pi. am (for dum), but in the gen. 



72 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

pi. they are now commonly uncontracted da, e. g. bra brow, 
gja rift, (in a stream of lava) spa spaedom, a river, skra 
lock for a door, ra roe, sla joining, hey , etc., gen. brar, pi. 
brar, bram, braa, in old writers bra etc. 

166. The eighth Decl. contains those fern, which form the 
pi. in r, e. g. hind hind, ond duck, rot root, mork woody plain, 
staling stake, stock. 



Sing. N. A. 


hind 


ond 


rot 


Dat. 


hind 


ond 


rot 


Gen. 


hindar 


andar 


rotar 


Plur. N. A. 


hindr 


endr 


raetr 


Dat. 


hindum 


ondum 


rotum 


Gen. 


hinda 


anda 


rota 



In like manner are inflected nyt nut, geit shegoat, nit nit, 
grind grate, lattice work, tonn tooth, nogl nail, ort teal, strond 
strand, old Engl, strond, bot fine, not strong need, bok book, 
gl65 glede, burning coaL 



Sing. N. A. 


mork 


staling 


Dat. 


mork 


staung 


Gen. 


merkr 


steingr 


Plur. N. A. 


merkr 


steingr 


Dat. 


morkum 


staungum 


Gen. 


marka 


stanga. 



In the same way are inflected, steik steak, eik oak, mjolk 
milk, vik inlet, spaung a thin sheet or plate, taung long, haunk 
hank. 

167. Words in d or t end commonly in or in the gen., but 
those in g or k have their gen. the same as the nom. pi. 

168. This Deck never takes u in the dat. like the seventh: 
thus ondu is the dat. of ond breath spirit, pi. andir; but ond of 
ond a duck pi. endr, though these words are found interchanged 
in old writers; in the same way mork and staung may also 
be inflected by the seventh decl. with the vowel changes 
there in force, thus; 



MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 



73 



Sing. N. A. 


mork 


staung 


Dat. 


morku 


staung 


Gen. 


markar 


stangar 


Plur. N. A. 


markir 


stangir 


Dat. 


morkum 


staungura 


Gen. 


marka 


stanga 



So also strond, rond, spaung, taung, haunk. 

169. Words ending in a vowel are declined regularly like 
rot, e. g. klo claw, makes in the gen. kloar, pi. klaer, klom, 
kloa, as also flo flea, kongulo spider, ta toe, which in the 
gen sing, alone is contracted to tar (for tdar), pi. taer; bru 
bridge, has in gen. bruar, pi. both br^r and brur; fru has in 
both these cases frur; 

170. Irregular are hond hand, nott, night, k^fr (for ku) 
cow, aer (for a) sheep, both which last are inflected alike, ex- 
cept that each of their vowels is changed after its own fashion, 
brun brow, mus mouse and lus, louse, which three are de- 
clined alike. 



Sing. Nom. 


hond 


nott 


natt 


tyr 


brun 


Ace. 


hond 


nott 


natt 


ku 


brtin 


Dat 


hendi 


nott (nottu) natt 


ku 


brun 


Gen. 


handar 


nsetr 


nattar 


kfv 


briinar 


Plur. N. A. 


hendr 


naetr 




kfr 


br^n 


Dat. 


hondum 


nottum 


nattum 


kum 


brunum 


Gen. 


handa 


notta 


natta 


kua 


bruna 



In later times a pi. in brfr has been formed from brun, 
perhaps because when the art. is added there is little differ- 
ence in sound between br^nnar and b^rnar, but it so happens 
that the form with the art. is the most common. In Eigla ch. 
55. this word occurs with its true old inflections. Like brun 
in the pi. is also declined in old writers the word d^r (durum, 
dura) door, with no sing., but in later times dyrum, dyra are 
commonly used. Br^nn, m^ss, and dyrr are also met with as 
in the Swed moss aud dorr (by rule 93.). nay sometimes even 
dyrr-in in the neut. 



74 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

2. Declension with the article. 

171. The definite form of subst. is as simple and easy, as 
the indefinite is complex and hard; it consists only in the 
addition of the art. with its inflections to those of the word 
itself, both being in the same gend. The art thus compounded 
with subst. is hitt, hinn , hin; in the composition h always 
falls away, and in the rieut. one t; added to which the vowel 
i itself falls away when the word ends in a simple vowel, as 
well as in those cases where a simple cons, with a vowel 
follows in the art. The following syll. therefore remain to be 
used in this composition. 





Neuter 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Sing. Nom. 


-it 


-inn 


-in 


Ace. 


-it 


-inn 


-ina (-na) 


Dat. 


-nu 


-num 


-inni (-nni) 


Gen. 


-ins 


-ins 


-innar (-nnar) 


Plur. Nom. 


-in 


-nir 


-nar 


Ace. 


-in 


-na 


-nar 


Dat. 


-num 


-num 


-num 


Gen. 


-nna 


-nna 


-nna. 


In the dat. 


pi. the m 


in the ending 


of the word always 



falls away when the art. is added, because the ending umnum 
or uminum, | would be far too long and unpleasant to the ear. 

Of all the old inflections none were longer retained in 
Swed. than those which belong to this final art.; e. g. in 
Charles XU's. Bible, Maccab. XIIL 50. "Men de maste bort 
af borgene, (Icel. borg-inni), och Simon lot rena borgena, 
(borg-ina). 51. Och tog henne in i them andra manadenom 
(manaSi-num) , i 171. ahrena (ari-no). The art. is still used in 
"herranom" and other like expresssions. 

172. A complete example of each declension with the art 



here exhibited; 








Sing. Nom. auga-t 


geisli-nn 


tunga-n 


skip-it 


Ace. auga-t 


geisli-nn 


tungu-na 


skip-it 


Dat. auga-nu 


geisla-num 


tiingu-nni 


skipi-nu 


Gen. auga-ns 


geisla-ns 


tungu-nnar 


skips-ins 



WITH THE ARTICLE. 75 



Plur. 


Nom. 


augu-n 


geislar-nir 


tungur-nar 


skip-in 




Ace. 


augu-n 


geisla-na 


tungur-nar 


skip-in 




Dat. 


augu-num 


geislu-num 


tungu-num 


skipu-num 




Gen. 


augna-nna 


geisla-nna 


tungna-nna 


skipa-nna 


Sing. 


Nom. 


sveinn-inn 


vi5r-inn 


eign-in 


bot-in 




Ace. 


sveinn-inn 


vi5-inn 


eign-ina 


bot-ina 




Dat. 


sveini-num 


vi5-num 


eign-inni 


bot-inni 




Gen. 


sveins-ins 


viSar-ins 


eignar-innar 


botar-innar 


Plur. 


Nom. 


sveinar-nir 


viSir-nir 


eignir-nar 


baetr-nar 




Ace. 


sveina-na 


viSu-na 


eignir-nar 


baetr-nar 




Dat. 


sveinu-num 


viftu-num 


eignu-num 


botu-num 




Gen. 


sveina-nna 


vi5a-nna 


eigna-nna 


bota-nna. 



173. Neut. in ur (of the 4«i decl.) always contract this 
ending, when the art. is added, e. g. nor5r-it myrkr-it, so also 
in the pi. klaustr-in, veor-in; this does not take place in any 
other ending, e. g. sumar-it, hofuSit; nor in any other gend. 
e. g. akur-inn, morgun-inn, hamar-inn, fj65ur-in. Even masc. 
and fern, in non-essential r keep it unchanged, and are con- 
sequently pronounced as if they had the essential syll. ur e. g. 
hest-r-inn, eld-r-inn, bruft-r-in, read hest-ur-inn, etc. 

174. Masc. which take no i in the dat. sing, cast away 
nevertheless that of the art., e. g. dal-num; nay even those 
which when they stand alone and emphatically take i (140.), as 
well as those of the 6th decl. which do not change the vowel, 
throw away this i when joined to the art, e. g. is-num, hol- 
num, smi9-num, and the like. 

The case is the same with all words which end in a diph- 
thongic vowel, when the art. would otherwise make two 
syll., e. g. tre-nu, Ija-num, bae-num, ey-nni, a-nni, ku-nni; so 
also in the ace. ey-na, a-na, ku-na, and even sometimes in old 
writers if they end in a cons., e. g. rei5-na carriage, etc. 
But in the nom. tre-it pi. tre-in, ace. Ija-inn, bae-inn, nom. 
ey-in, a-in. 

175. Yet some small changes sometimes occur in the 
word itself, e. g. those monosyll. which end in the gen. pi. 



76 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

in da, da, and ua, cast away the last «, e. g. trja-nna, ljd-nna, 
skd-nna, a-nna, kti-nna. 

176. The contrary takes place in the gen. sing, of mono- 
syll. fern.; these are commonly contracted when they stand 
indefinitely, but always lengthened when the art. is added; 
e. g. fru, gen. friir, fruar-innar; skra lock, gen. skrar, skraar- 
innar; but a river is an exception gen. ar-innar; aer sheep aer- 
innar, k^r cow k^r-innar. 

177. For the rest all, even the irregular, add the art. to 
their usual endings, and are thus in this respect regular; e. g. 
eigandi-nn, eiganda-nn, eiganda-num, eiganda-ns, eigendr-nir, 
etc., faeti-num, faetr-nir, verkan-in, verkanir-nar, stundu-nni, 
jorSu-nni, salu-nni, salna-nna, naelr-innar, klaer-nar, klo-num, 
m^s-nar, dyr-nar, etc., Ma5r alone inserts in the pi. the ending 
ir ace. i; menn-ir-nir menn-i-na; faSir and broSir also usually 
insert 5 in the gen. sing. fodurs-ins, broours-ins. 

178. It it self evident that Prop. Names do not admit of 
this composition with the art. e. g. Eyjolfr, Bjarni, Danmork, 
Ungaraland, Uppsalir, Lundiin, Saxelfr, Njorvasund. (The Gut 
of Gibraltar) etc. ; unless it be that the word was originally 
a common appellative which by custom has become used as 
a Proper Name, e. g. Vik-in (the Fjord at Christiania in Nor- 
way) Logrinn (Lake Malar). So also in the case of the names 
of Books etc., e. g. Edda, Njala, Hakonarmal, Grimnismal, 
(neut. pi.), LoSbrokarqviSa, together w T ith the names of peoples, 
many of which are used only in the pi., e. g. Danir, Sviar, 
Gautar, (Goths) Irar, Finnar (Lapps) Ovenir (Finns), Bjarmar 
and the like. On the other baud the corresponding adj. espe- 
cially in the new tongue, are often used instead ef these 
words, and then take the art, like subst., e. g. frfzkr-inn 
danskr-inn etc. The pi. also mentioned in rules 124. and 125. 
are seldom used with the art. 



77 



CHAPTER VI. 
Of Adjectives. 

179. The inflections of the Icelandic adj. and participles 
are very like those of the subst, but are materially easier 
because they are nearly all declined in the same way. They 
distinguish the def. and indef. forms, and the three usual cases 
in each; every perfect adj. therefore contains as it were six 
deck; and this in such a way that the def. form answers to 
the 3 first decl. of subst., and the indef. to the 4th 5th and 
7 th ; though by no means thoroughly like these. Moreover the 
three usual degrees of comparison, the Positive, Comparative, 
and Superlative, are met with throughout. 

1. The Positive- 

180. In no case or inflection of adj. does the real ground 
or root form show itself with certainty; it is perhaps found 
in the easiest and surest way in the def. form, when the last 
vowel is thrown away; e. g. from hit harSa, har5, from hit 
saela sael, are the respective roots. The genius of the lang- 
uage does not therefore seem to have pointed out any parti- 
cular form for the first place in the arrangement of words of 
this class; but since in these also the neut. is the simplest 
gend. , with which again the masc. agrees most , it seems 
most natural and convenient to keep the order adopted when 
treating of subst. 

181. A view of the regular inflections of adj. will be 
found in the following table. 

Definite 
Neut. Masc. 
Sing. Nom. — a — i 
Ace. — a — a 

Dat. — a 

Gen. — a 



Fem. 


— 


a 


+ 


u 


-t- 


u 


+ 


u 



78 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 



Plur. Nom. 






+ 


u 




Ace. 






+ 


u 




Dat. 






+ 


u 




Gen. 






+ 


u 










Indefinite 






Neut. 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Sing. Nom. 


— 


t 


— 


r, » 


+ - 


Ace. 


— 


t 


— 


an 


— a 


Dat. 


+ 


u 


+ 


um 


— ri 


Gen. 


— 


s 


— 


s 


— rar 


Plur. Nom. 


+ 


V 


— 


ir 


— ar 


Ace. 


+ 


» 


— 


a 
um 


— ar 


Dat. 






+ 




Gen. 






— 


ra 





182. The def. form is thus in the sing, exactly like the 
simpler class of subst. (i. e. the I s } 2nd and 3 r d deck), and ends 
throughout in the pi. in u. 

The indef. form has very nearly the same endings as the 
final art. already exhibited (171. 172); the only difference is 
that in those cases where r in the ending would meet n in 
the art, these two letters are assimilated to nn (93), and that in 
the ace. sing. masc. of the art. n only is found instead of an; 
but both these peculiarities in the art. take place also in all 
dissyll. adj. in it, inn, in. As a help it may also be remarked 
that the gen. sing, is always alike in the neut. and masc. — 
that the nom. sing. fern, is, like the Latin, always the same 
as the nom. pi. neut. — that the ace. sing. fern, is always the 
same as the ace. masc. pi. — and that the dat. sing. masc. is 
always the same as the dat. pi. in all gend. — the neuters as 
in Latin are always alike in the nom. and ace; the same holds 
good of fern, in the pi. 

183. The endings themselves have much likeness to those 
of other languages, especially those of old Swed., e. g. t is 
the Swed. and Dansk t, the Germ, es in the neut., r the old 
Swed. er 7 e. g. en glader man, unger sven, and the Germ. 



POSITIVE DEGREE. 79 

er of the masc.; an is the old Swed. an (lat tigh varda om 
honom sasom om tigh sjelfvari), Dansk en. Germ, en in the 
same case; um or om is the old Swed. and Dansk om or um 
(i godom frid etc.), Angl. Sax. om, Germ, em, en; 5 is also 
very often found in old Swed. and Dansk, ndr tu sitter vidh 
en rijks mans bord), and in the Germ, gutes muihes seyn ; a 
in the ace. fern, is the Angl. Sax. and Germ, e; and ri, rar 
in the dat. gen. fern, the Angl. Sax re, Germ, er ; a in the 
ace. masc. pi. is the Swed. a> now used throughout in the 
pi., (e. g. alia goda vdnner; *) um in the dat. is the Angl. 
Sax. um, the old Swed. om (i allom), Germ, en and the like; 
-ra in the gen. is the Angl. Sax. ra Germ. er. 

184. By way of a complete example of the declensions of 
adj. hagt handy, blatt blue, skaert clear, fagurt fair, may be 
exhibited; 



Definite. 


Neut. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Sing. Nom. 


hag-a 


hag-i 


hag-a 


Ace. Dat. Gen. 


hag-a 


hag-a 


hog-u 


Plur. throughout. 


hog-u 


hog-u 


hog-u 


Indefinite. 








Sing. Nom. 


hag-t 


hag-r 


hog 


Ace 


hag-t 


hag-an 


hag-a 


Dat. 


hog-u 


hog-um 


hag-ri 


Gen. 


hag-s 


hag-s 


hag-rar 


Plur. Nom. 


hog 


hag-ir 


hag-ar 


Ace. 


hog 


hag-a 


hag-ar 


Dat. 


hog-um 


hog-um 


hog-um 


Gen. 


hag-ra 


hag-ra 


hag-ra 


in the same way 


are declined; 






spaka i. a. 


spakt spakr 


spok 


wise 


hvata i. a. 


hvatt hvatr 


hvot 


hasty 


harSa i. a. 


hart harSr 


hor5 


hard 


hvassa i. a. 


hvast hvass 


hvoss 


sharp, keen 



* In like manner a in the ace. masc. sing, of the def. form has 
become the nom. in Swed., e. g. (er) odmjuka tjenare, den 



80 



DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 



snara i. a. snart snar snor swift 

gjarna i. a. gjarnt gjarn gjorn greedy 

ranga i. a. rangt rangr raung wrong 

kranka i. a. krankt krankr kraunk weak* sickly. 



Definite Neut. 

Sing. Norn. bla-a 

Ace. Dat. Gen. bla-a 

Plur. throughout, bla-u 



Indefinite 
Sing. Nom. 

Ace. 

Dat. 

Gen. 
Plur. Nom. 

Ace. 

Dat. 

Gen. 



bla-tt 

bla-tt 

bla-u 

bla-s (ss) 

bla 

bla 

bla-um 

bla-rra 



In the same way are declined. 



hraa i. a 

fraa i. a. 

haa i. a. 

mjoa i. a. 

frjoa i. a. 

triia i. a. 

htya i. a. 

n^a i. a. 



hralt 

fratt 

hatt 

mjott 

frjott 

triitt 

htylt 

itflt 



hrar 

frar 

har 

mjor 

frjor 

trur 

hip 

nfr 



Definite Neut. 

Sing. Nom. skaer-a 

A. D. G. skaer-a 

PI. throughout, skaer-u 



Masc. 

bla-i 
bla-a 
bla-u 

bla-r 

bla-an 

bla-um 

bla-s (ss) 

bla-ir 

bla-a 

bla-um 

bla-rra 

hra 

fra 

ha 

mjo 

frjo 

trii 

h\f 

*f 

Masc. 
skaer-i 
skaer-a 
skaer-u 



Fern, 
bla-a 
bla-u 
bla-u 

bla 

bla-a 

bla-rri 

bla-rrar 

bla-ar 

bla-ar 

bla-um 

bla-rra 



raw 

swift of foot 

high 

small 

fruitful 

true 

lukewavm 

new. 

Fern, 
skaer-a 
skaer-u 
skaer-u 



lilla gossen, and the like. On the other hand e seems most 
common and correct in the pi. of the def. form, where the old 
Norse has u e. g. de gamle, de unge, de Grekiske Forf- 
attarne, etc. however arbitrary the laws of euphony may have 
become over these endings in later times. 







POSITIVI 


: DEGREE. 




Indefinite 




Neut. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Sing. Nom. 




skaer-t 


skaer 


skaer 


Ace. 




skaer-t 


skaer-an 


skaer-a 


Dat. 




skaer-u 


skaer-um 


skaer-i 


Gen. 




skaer-s 


skaer-s 


skaer-rar 


Plur. Nom. 




skaer 


skaer-ir 


skaer-rar 


Ace. 




skaer 


skaer-a 


skaer-rar 


Dat. 




skaer-um 


skaer-um 


skaer-um 


Gen. 




skaer-ra 


skaer-a 


skaer-ra 


n the same i 


way 


are declined: 




sara i. 


a. 


sart 


sar sar 


sore 


stora i. 


a. 


stort 


stor stor 


great 


sura i. 


a. 


surt 


siir sur 


sour 


skira i. 


a. 


skirt 


skir skir 


clean 


d^ra i. 


a. 


d>t 


dp d^r 


dear 


bera i. 


a. 


bert 


ber ber 


bare 


|mrra i. 


a. 


Jmrt 


Jmrr fmrr 


dry 


kyrra i. 


a. 


kyrt 


kyrr kyrr 


still. 


Definite 




Neut. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Sing. Nom. 




fagr-a 


fag-ii 


fagr-a 


A. D. G. 




fagr-a 


fag-ra 


fogr-u 


PI. throughout. 


fogr-u 


fogr-u 


fogr-u 


Indefinite. 








Sing. Nom. 




fagur-t 


fagur 


fogur 


Ace. 




fagur-t 


fagr-an 


fagr-a 


Dat. 




fogr-u 


fogr-um 


fagur-ri 


Gen. 




fagur-s 


fagur-s 


fagur-rar 


Plur. Nom. 




fogur 


fagr-ir 


fagr-ar 


Ace. 




fogur 


fagr-a 


fagr-ar 


Dat. 




fogr-um 


fogr-um 


fogr-um 


Gen. 




fagur-ra 


fagur-ra 


fagur-ra. 


In the same 


way are inflected. 




magra i. 


a. 


magurt 


magur mogu 


r meagre 


vakra i. 


a. 


vakurt 


vakurt vokui 


' pretty 


dapra i. 


a. 


dapurt 


dapur dopui 


sad 
6 



81 



82 



DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 



digra 


i. a. digurt 


digur 


digur 


fat 


lipra 


i. a. lipurt 


lipar 


lipur 


neat 


vilra 


i. a. viturt 


vitur 


vitur 


wise 


bitria 


i. a. biturt 


bitur 


bitur 


bitter ; sharp 



185. The vowel changes are the same as usual (74. 78.). 
In polysyll. words the first a becomes o, the second u, e. g. 
hit kallafta pi. kolluftu , and in the fern, and neut. pi. of 
indef. form kolluS, dat. pi. kolluSum. If the first syll. has not 
a, that of the second syll. is still changed into u, thus hit 
ritaSa the written, pi. rituSu etc. So also all like part., but 
adj. which are not contracted, commonly take o in the second 
and u only in the third syll., e. g. heilaga the holy pi. heil- 
ogu, and indef. fem. and neut. pi. heilog etc. In old writers 
this word is usually contracted in all those cases in which 
the ending begins with a vowel, thus in the def. form helga, 
helgi, helga, indef. dat. helgu, helgum, and even helgri etc.; 
friSsama pi. friSsomu, einfalda pi. einfoldu etc. If only the 
first syll. have a no change takes place, e. g. falliga (fagurliga) 
the pretty, fair, pi. falligu, so also langsama, pi. langsomu, 
because the contraction is here plain. 

186. .Like hit haga, hagt, hagr, hog, are also inflected adj. 
not having the vowel a, with the sole exception that they 
take no change of vowel, hit froma pi. fromu, indef. fromt pi. 
from, just, hit heita, heitt, hot, etc. Yet it must be remarked 
that those of which the characteristic letter is tt or t after 
any other cons., remain alike in the neut. and fem. of the in- 
def. form; e. g. hit stutta the short indef. stutt, stuttr, stutt; 
hit leysta the loosed, leyst, leystr, leyst and the like. Those 
which have mm, nn, or 11, are found both with single and 
double characteristic letters before t, e. g. skamt and skammt 
scant, short svint and svinnt clever, snjalt and snjallt speedy; 
but nn and 11 seem to be more common, and are kept even 
before other conson. in the indef. form; e. g. fullt full dat. 
fem. fullri, gen. fullrar, gen. pi. fullra. Hit ilia the ill, wicked, 
makes illt (ilt) illr, ill, and hit sanna, satt, sannr, sonn. Those 
which have 5 after a vowel , change it into t before t, e. g. 
hit glafta, glatt, glad; hit rauoa, rautt, red, hit breifta, breitt, 



POSITIVE DEGREE 



83 



broad ; hit goSa makes gott good', but should they have a 
cons, before 8 or d, this last falls away altogether, e. g. hit 
kalda the cold, kalt; hit kenda the Mown, kent; hit sagSa the 
said, sagt; hit laerfta the learned, laert. The ease is the same 
in all polysyll. words, even though they have a vowel before 
8, e. g. hit kallaSa, kallat; hit ritaSa ritat; and all part, like 
these, never kalladt , ritadt. Those in dda in the def. form 
keep one d before t in the indef., e. g. hit breidda , breidt 
broadened, hit faedda, faedt born, hit eydda, eydt wasted; yet 
faett, eytt, etc., are also found in old writers. Before all 
other cons. 5, d and dd are kept as before vowels, e. g. gen. 
and inasc. glaSs fern. glaSrar; goSs go'orar ; kalds (kalz), 
kaldrar; kends (kenz), kendrar; sagfs, sagftrar; laerSs, laerSrar, 
kalians, kallaftrar; ritaSs, ritaSrar, etc. 

187. Some other writers wish against all sound and the 
old custom, though only in monosyllables, to keep o* and d 
before t, in ordev to distinguish those of which the cha- 
racteristic letter is d, from those which have t or another 
con., e. g. blautt of blanSa the weakly, from blautt of blauta 
the soft ; faerdt brought from faert able (from faer.) But the 
cases when such a confusion can arise are few, and on the 
other hand by this rule those part, which have dd are con- 
founded with the adj. which have 8 for their characteristic, 
e. g. breitt and breidt from bred and bredd, leitt and leidt 
from led and ledd, J)^tt and Jr^dt from hit frfSa the mild, and 
f)fdda the explained etc. So that in this as much seems lost 
as gained, unless we were to write breiddt, leiddt , ])fddt, 
fceddt, eyddt, and the like; which would be a quite new and 
needless custom, and would make the orthography consider- 
ably longer. If along with this we keep (with the Society for 
the Diffusion of Knowledge) the double mm, nn, 11, etc., before 
d (44.); we must write for skemt laughed away, brent burnt, 
etc. skemmdt, brenndt, and the like ; and if we throw away z, 
(49)., as this Society also wished, we must in part, and sup. 
pass, write skemmdst . or properly skemmdtst, for skemzt to 
have been laughed away. 

6* 



84 



DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 



188. Monosyll. of which the characteristic letter is a dipli- 
thongic vowel take tt, and in the nom. sing masc. double rr 
for t and r. Those which have 6 are often found in old 
writers with an inserted f or v before the endings which begin 
with vowels; e.g. mjofa, frjofa, sljofa the slow, etc.; the indef. form 
is mjott, frjott, sljott, in the masc. both mjor and mjofr, frjor 
and frjofr, sljor and sljofr. So also hit hafa the high, hatt high, 
masc. har. Some are also found with a cons, for their charac- 
teristic which insert tf, e. g. glogg-va the clear, rosk-va the 
rash, J)yck-va the thick, myrk-va the murk, trygg-va the trusty. 
On the other hand the tongue has very few adj. which insert 

j, and these chiefly in old writers, e. g. hit n£ja the new, and 
scarcely any more w r ords with cons, for their characteristic of 
this kind than mitt middle, masc. miftr, fern. miS, ace. mitt, 
miSjan, miSja, etc. which has no def. form, but is in other 
respects a regular adj. like the Lat. medium, medius, media. 

189. Adj. in essential r , s, or ss differ only in the nom. 
masc. of the indef. form, where they take no new r (by an old 
and now abandoned orthography however they take rr, ss, 
comp. 93. 139.) The case is the same with those in / or n, 
after a cons. e. g. lausa the loose, laus, hressa the cheerful, 
hress, vissa the sure, viss, forna the old forn. 

190. Those of which the character, is / or n, and which 
have a diphthongic vowel, take in all cases where r should 
follow, #, nn, for Ir, nr (comp. 93. 441.), e. g. forsjalt fore- 
sighted, masc. forsjall, dat. fern, forsjalli instead of forsjdlri, ac- 
cordingly vaent fair, handsome is thus declined ; 



Definite. 


Neut. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Sing. Nom. 


vaen-a 


vaen-i 


vaen-a 


A. D. G. 


vsen-a 


vaen-a 


vaen-u 


Plur. 


vaen-u 


vaen-u 


vaen-u 


Indefinite. 








Sing. Nom. 


vsen-t 


vaen-n 


vaen 


Ace. 


vaen-t 


vaen-an 


vaen-a 


Dat, 


vaen-u 


vaen-un 


vaen-ni 


Gen. 


vaen-s 


vaen-s 


vaen-nar 



POSITIVE DEGREE. 



85 



Plur. Norn. 

Aec. 

Dat. 

Gen. 



vaen 
vaen 

vaen-um 
vaen-na 



In the same way are declined; 



hreina 

klena 

briina 

br^na 

hala 

saela 

heila 

fula 



i. a. 

i. a. 

i. a. 

i. a. 

i. a. 

i. a. 

i. a. 

i. a. 



hreint 

klent 

brunt 

br^nt 

halt 

sselt 

heilt 

fult 



hreinn 

klenn 

brunn 

br^nn 

hall 

saeli 

heill 

full 



vaen-ir 
vaen-a 
vaen-um 
vaen-na 



hrein 

klen 

brun 

hufn 

hal 

sael 

heil 

ful 



vaen-a r 
va3n-ar 
vaen-um 
vaen-na 

clean 

small 

brown, black 

plain 

slippery 

happy 

whole 

foul. 



191. Those in essential ur, (in old writers also urf), are 
often contr. in the dat. and gen. fern, sing., and gen. pi. of 
the indef. form; e. g. fagri, fagrar, fagra, because the regular 
form has a heavy sound. 

192. All adj. which in the neut. of the indef form end in 
alt or ult, follow fagra, yet so that these, like monosyll. with 
a diphthongic vowel (190.), change Ir to // throughout, and 
are never contr. in these cases; e. g. hit gamla i, a, gamalt, 
gamall, gomul; j)6gla, i, a, J)6gult, f)6gull, f)6gul silent, taci- 
turn, etc. Vesalt vile is properly compounded of saelt, and has 
another form vesaela, vesaelt etc. (by rule 190.), but may also 
follow this rule, e. g. vesla i, a, vesalt, vesall, vesol. The word 
hit heimila, the rightful, most commonly indef. heimilt, heimill, 
heimil is not contr.; mikla mickle, is irregular in the neut. of 
the indef. form, where it makes mikit (never mikilt) , and the 
ace. masc. where it makes mikinn (for mikiln but never mik- 
lan); in the same way litla little, is inflec. which in other 
cases takes an accent over i if no position follow, thus litit 
litill, litil, and in the ace. litit, litinn, litla, etc. 

193. All participles of verbs in the 2nd conjug., and all 
adj. of the same nature, are also declined after fagra, except 
that nr always becomes nn, as in the case of monosyll. adj. 
with a diphthong (190.); But it must also be remarked that 



86 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 

the oharact. n falls away before t in the neut., and that the 
ace. sing. masc. of the indef. form remains like the nom. -inn 
(not nan) , so that they are declined exactly as the final art. 
exhibited in 171. e. g. 



heppna 


i. a. heppit 


heppinn, 


-in 


lucky 


tekna 


i. a. tekit 


tekinn, 


-in 


taken 


haldna 


i. a. haldit 


haldinn, 


-in 


holden 


heiSna 


i. a. heiSit 


heiSinn, 


-in 


heathen 



So also comp. adj. with the same endings, e. g. undan- 
farinn foregoing, ihaldinn beholden, hreinskilinn upright, gagn- 
tekinn penetrated. Those which have a in the first syll. un- 
dergo a vowel change when the i of the second syll. is thrown 
out by contr., and the ending begins with u, otherwise not 
(comp. 185), e. g. in the def. fern, hin haldna, ace. hina holdnu, 
pi. hin, hinir, hinar holdnu, etc.; but the indef. neut. and fern, 
pi. haldin, dat. sing, holdnu, holdnum, haldinni etc. 

194. Some few adj. in it, inn, in, and participles in parti- 
cular of thelstconug. 3^ class, have besides this form another 
in t, dr, d, (ov t, tr, t, if the characteristic letter be a hard cons.) ; 
both which indeed are found perfect in many words, though 
the latter is commonly used in those cases where the ending 
begins with a vowel, and the word consequently should be 
contr. Galit silly for example is thus declined; 



Definite. 


Neut. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Sing. Nom. 


galda 


galdi 


galda 


A. D. G. 


galda 


galda 


goldu 


Plural. 


goldu 


goldu 


goldu. 


Indefinite. 








Sing. Nom. 


galit 


galinn 


galin 


Ace. 


galit 


galinn 


galda 


Dat. 


goldu 


goldum 


galinni 


Gen. 


galins 


galins 


galinnar 


Plur, Nom. 


galin 


galdir 


galdar 


Ace. 


galin 


galda 


galdar 


Dat. 


goldum 


goldum 


goldum 


Gen. 


galinna 


galinna 


galinna 







POSITIVE 


DEGREE. 






ie same 


way 


are declined. 






nakta 


i. a. 


nakit 


nakinn 


-in 


naked 


vakta 


i. a. 


vakit 


vakinn 


-in 


wakened 


valda 


i. a. 


valit 


valinn 


-in 


chosen 


tamda 


i. a 


tamit 


taminn 


-in 


tamed 


vanda 


i. a. 


vanit 


vaninn 


-in 


wont 


barda 


i. a. 


barit 


barinn 


-in 


beaten 


dulda 


i. a. 


dulit 


dulinn 


-in 


hidden 


skilda 


i. a. 


skilit 


ski linn 


-in 


farted. 



87 



The word galit is also properly a part, of the verb gala 
(ek gel) to bewitch. In the three cases, dat. gen. sing. fern, 
and neut. pi. both forms are used : we say therefore also galdri, 
galdrar, galdra ; in some one form, in others the other, is 
more common. 

Some of these words have also a different meaning for 
each of these forms, e. g. kalit frozen, kalt cold, lagit fated, 
lagt laid. But others which seem to stand in the same re- 
lation to one another belong actually to different verbs, and 
must not therefore be confounded as indifferent forms; e. g. qveSit 
from qveoa to sing, say, but qvadt from qveoja to hail, salute, 
setit from sitja to sit, but sett of setja to set, hafit from hefja 
to heave, but haft from hafa to have. 

195. Besides these perfect adj. now described, a number 
are formed in a by composition, and these remain always indecl. 
e. g. gagndrepa wet through, soaked, sammaedra born of the same 
mother, jafnaldra of the same age, draumstola one who dreams 
not, heilvita one with all his wits about him, sharpwitted, einmana 
alone without followers dauSvona on the point of death, a-dying. 

Some of these are also found in the masc. in i, e. g. an- 
vana lifeless, also andvani, fulltiSa fullgrown, fulltioi (Eigla 
39 ch. 185. p.) 

196. Pres. part, in -andi, when they stand as adj. are not 
inflected like any of those already treated of, but will be 
spoken of below. 



88 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 



Comparative Degree. 

197. The higher degree is formed from the first in two 
ways by the endings -ra in the neut., and ri in the masc. and 
fern. These endings are added namely either to the def. neut. 
so that a is kept , or to the indef. form instead of t in the 
neut., and r in the masc., in such a way that the chief syll. 
changes its vowel by rule 74 — 85. Both are very like the 
common Swed. method of forming this degree ; e. g. haga-ra 
•ri, fmngt, f>yng-ra-ri. 

198. Those which are formed from the def. form are chief- 
ly those of which the charact. makes a hard position, as /??, 
gn, ss, tt, dd, Id, rd",' etc.; e. g. jafna-ra evener, megna-ra 
mightier, hvassa-ra sharper, J>etta-ra tighter, vio"breidda-ra 
more widely stretched, kalda-ra colder, harSa-ra harder ; all 
those with the vowel a (those in ur alone excepted), e. g. 
glaoa-ra, hvatara and the like; and all those in -it (for -inf.) 
as well those with a double, as those with one form ; e. g. heppit 
lucky, heppna-ra, flokit entangled, fldkna-ra ; galit, galda-ra 
nakil, nakta-ra, and all such like without exception. 

199. Those which form their comp. from the indef. form 
are especially those, which with a diphthong before the ending 
have tt, e.g. hatt, hserra; mjottmjorra; n^tt n^rra ; monosyll. 
in nt or It, which take nna, lla, instead of nra, Ira, e. g. 
vsen-na sasl-la; many in rt, which take -rra, e.g. stort staerra, 
dyrt d^na; and those in -ur having a in their first syll. which 
here change a into e, and are contracted so that one r falls 
away, e.g. faguri, fegra; vakurt vekra; yet vakra-ra etc. may 
also be said from the def. form. 

200. Many take both these forms, but so that the shorter 
form with change of vowel seems to belong to the older, and 
the longer form in -ara to the newer, tongue. This is the 
case with monosyll. which have an unchangeable diphthong for 
their characteristic, or r with a like diphthong before it; e. g. 
mjott mjofara, irftt n^ara; dfrt d^rara; dockr dark, deckra or 



COMPARATIVE DEGREE. 89 

dockvara; djupt d^pra or djupara; so also dissyll. in ult (alt), 
e. g. gjofult forgiving goflara or gjofulla; and those in ugt or 
gt in general, e. g. hentugt, fitting, hentugra or hentugara, and 
the like. 

201. All comp. however formed have but one way of in- 
flection whether they are used def. or indef. e. g. hagara; 





Neut. 


Masc. 


Fem. 


Sing. Nom. 


hagara 


hagari 


hagari 


A. D. G. 


hagara 


hagara 


hagari 


Plural 


hagari 


hagari 


hagari 



The neut. and masc. are inflected exactly like the def. form 
of the pos., but the fem. and pi. have i throughout. New writers 
form the masc. also in i throughout, and keep a for the neut 
alone. 

In the same simple way are also declined all participles 
pres. act. when used as adj., e. g. lifanda, i, living, liggjanda 
i, lying, standanda i, standing, sjaanda i, seeing; and the like. 
But these are commonly used by new writers as indecl. in i 
throughout, e. g. J>at allt sjaandi auga the all-seeing eye. 



Superlative Degree. 

202. The highest degree is formed, according to the old 
orthography, from the higher (i. e. comp.) by inserting the cha- 
racteristic letter st, and adding the same endings which the 
pos. requires; but since by this method r would come before 
st, which cannot be pronounced, the superl. was usually writ! en 
with zt, (for rst), e. g. def. hagazta, hagazti, hagazta; indef. 
hagazt, hagaztr, hoguzt. This orthography is found in those 
words also which form their comp. from the indef. form in the 
pos., e. g. hit naozta the nearest, etc. yet this is more rare 
(comp. 48.). But in later times the superl. has been univer- 
sally formed from the pos. in the same way as the comp. is 
formed, by the endings sta, i, a, in the def., and st, st?\ st. in 
the indef. form, e. g. hagast, Jjyngst, 



90 



DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 



203. The superl., therefore like the comp., has a twofold 
method of inflection , one from the def. form , a of the pos. 
being kept, the other from ihe indef. with a change of vowel; 
and sometimes it is found in both forms. It is however by 
no means a general rule that the superl. and comp. of the 
same word are formed in the same way; thus the longer form 
in -ast is taken by all monosyll. and polysyll. adj in -It, with 
the exception of those mentioned in rule 198. e. g. saelast, 
gjoflast. as also by all polysyll. in gt, e. g. hentugast; and by 
some monosyll. in nt, e. g. seina-st, hreina-st, fina-st, and 
others which admit of no vowel change, e. g. n^a-st, and those 
which insert v, e. g. gloggva-st clearest, dockva-st, and 
the like. 

204. Thus those which take the shorter form in the superl. 
are very few, being chiefly those which change their vowel, as 
in Swed., the most important are the following; 



fatt 


faerra 


faest 


fewest 


smatt 


smserra 


smaest 


smallest 


hatt 


haerra 


haest 


highest 


lagt 


laegra 


laegst 


lowest 


stort 


staerra 


staert 


greatest 


langt 


leingra 


leingst 


longest 


j)raungt 


Jreyngra 


£reyngst 


closest. 


fmngt 


frfngra 


f)^ngst 


heaviest 


ungt 


^ngra 


fngst 


youngest 


jmnnt 


£ynnra 


f>ynnst 


thinnest 


fullt 


fyllra 


fyllst 


fullest. 



So also beint strait 9 beinna , 
vsenst, etc. 



beinst; vaent fair vaenna, 



205. Some few take both these [forms, e. g. haegst and 
haegast, d^pst and djupast; fegurst and fagrast; megurst and 
magrast, d^rst and d^rast, kaerst and kaerast: In old writers 
agaezt is also found for agaetast, from agaett excellent, famous 
and 4igst for -ligast, in all adj., in -ligt, hit virdu-ligsta raft 
the most noble counsel, hinn mannvaenligsti maSr the most praisr- 
wortly (young) man etc. This original shorter superl has 



SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 



91 



been retained in Dansk, but the longer in ligasta-i- etc., is 
now general in Icelandic as in Swedish. 

The fact, that the superl. is formed in so many cases diff- 
erently from the comp., seems an additional proof, that it 
should not be derived from that degree, but like it from the 
pos., and that consequently the old orthography -azt, zt, (for 
asty st,) is at least needless, and it may be wrong. 

206. The inflections of the superl., however formed, are 
always like those of the pos. By way however of a perfect 
example hagast w r ill be here exhibited. 



Definite. 


Neut. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Sing. Nom. 


hagasta 


hagasti 


hagasta 


dc. Dat. Gen. 


hagasta 


hagasta 


hogustu 


Plur. 


hogustu 


hogustu 


hogustu 


Indefinite. 








Sing. Nom. 


hagast 


hagastr 


hogust 


Ace. 


hagast 


hagastan 


hagasta 


Dat. 


hogustu 


hogustum 


hagastri 


Gen. 


hagasts 


hagasts 


hagastrar 


Plur. Nom. 


hogust 


hagastir 


hagastar 


Ace. 


hogust 


hagasta 


hagastar 


Dat. 


hogustum 


hogustum 


hogustum 


Gen. 


hagastra 


hagastra 


hagastra. 



207. In regard to inflection there is no irregularity, but in 
regard to formation there are some pos. which take no degrees 
of comp. , as well as some compar. and superlat. which want 
the pos.; which when the meaning is the same are wont to be 
classed together as irregular; the most important are: 



Positive. 
goSa, gott 



Comparative. 
i betra 
f skarra 



Superlative, 
bezt-a 
skasl-a 



best 



92 



DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 



Positive. 


Comparative. Superlative. 


ilia, ilk | 


verra 


verst-a worst * 


vonda, vont ' 








marga, margt* 


fleira 


flest 


-a most 


mikla, mi kit 


meira 


mest-a greatest 


litla, h'tit 


minna 


minst-a least 


gamla, gamalt 


eldra 


elzt 


-a eldest 


Some comp. and 


super!, are 


formed , as 


in Greek, from 


adverbs, prep, and subst., and have therefore 


no posit, e. g. 


norSr (norSlsegr) 


nyrSra 


morSast 


nortkmost 


austr (austlaegr) 


eystra 


austast 


eastmost 


suSr (suSlsegr) 


sySra 


sySst 


soutkmost 


vestr (vestlaegr) 


vestra 


vestast 


westmost 


fram (old. adj. framr) 


fremra 


fremst 


foremost 


aptr 


\ eptra 
1 aptara 


\ epzt 
\ aptast 


aftermost 


lit 


ytra 


yzt 


outmost 


inn 


innra 


innst 


inmost 


of old (yfir) 


efra 


efst 


vermost 


niftr 


neSra 


ne5st 


nethermost 


aSr 


seSra 


seftst 


erst 


si5* old 


siSara 


si'Sast 


latest 


for old (fyrir) 


fyrra 


fyrst 


first 


heldr 


heldra 


helzt 


ratherest 


sjaldan 


sjaldnara 


sjaldnast 


rarest 


upp 




ypparst 


upmost 


nasrri (naiaegr) 




nsest 


neared 


fjarri old (fjarlaergr) 




firrst 


| farthest. 


fjaerri 




fjaerst 


\ 



* The Swed. sdmre, sdmst is not found in Icel. but is taken 
from Angl. Sax. s&mre. The word elak is in Icel. regular 
lakt, lakr, 16k, comp. lakarai, in superl. lakasta. But the pos. 
is seldom met with. 

* This is not often used definitely in the sing, but hin , J>au 
morgu the many in the pi. is very common. 



SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 93 

Einn, alone wants the comp. and makes in the super!, 
einasta loneliest, more often used def. 

208. Adj. which do not take the def. form want also the 
degrees of comp.; e. g. nog (for naegt, naegr, naeg, comp., 
naegara, superl. naegast, is another word), allt etc. So also 
those in a, i, with the exception of the late word ringara, 
ringast. Prest part. act. in -anda also never take any degrees 
of comp.; Pret. part. pass, very seldom, unless they have passed 
quite into adj., e. g. J>eckt known, j)ecktara ; J>ecktast. 

209. Those words which do not take comp. by reason of 
their ending, but the meaning of which admits of further degrees, 
express them by means of the adv. meir (meira), mest in the 
ascending scale, and in the descending use minna, minst, or 
siSr, sizt; but such periphrases seldom occur.; the diminutive 
comparative, particularly if joined to a negation, is expressed 
by 6 before the common form ; e. g. ecki ofegra not less fair. 

210. The adv. which more exactly determine the degrees 
of adj. are chiefly these; in the pos. vel well, enough, but 
not in a very high degree, e. g. veil heitt, well warm, vel 
mikit great enough; harSla, nsesta, and mjok svo, answer to 
very greatly, e. g. hardla litit very little, nsesta mikit very 
much, mjok svo goSr, very good indeed; heldr rather, heldr 
heitr rather hot, heldr mikill rather large ; of too much, e. g. 
of kaldr too cold; heldr til, helzti, mikils til of, far too, e. g. 
heldr til snemma far too soon. With the comp. are used jafn, 
something, (more) e. g. jpetta er jafn betra that is (really) some 
thing better; miklu much (multo), e.g. miklu fegra much fairer 
(neut.); and other similar dat. of pron. or adj., ecki ollu etc.; 
not much better, (perhaps not at all better)-, langt um far, 
e. g. langt um eldra far elder. In the superl. the determining 
word is put in the gen.; allra is most commonly used, e. g. allra 
stserst all greatest, and also einna (i. e. unorum), e. g. einna mest 
most of all; as well as einn hinn mesti , or einhverr sa mesti 
one of the greatest. 



94 



CHAPTER VII. 
Of Pronouns 

211. This class of words is divided in the Icel. as in 
other tongues. It is very like in part to the subst.; in part 
to the adj., but has also many peculiarities. 

212. The Personal pronouns are these 

1st Person 2nd Person 



Sing. Nom. 


ek 






|>u 


Ace. 


mik 






f)ik 


Dat. 


mer 






|>er 


Gen. 


mm 






fun 


Dual. 




Plur. 


Dual. 


Plur. 


Nom. viS 




ver 


f»5 


t>er 


Ace. ockr 


OSS 


yckr 


ytfe 


Dat. ockr 


OSS 


yckr 


y5r 


Gen. ockar 


vor 


yckar 


yffar 


3rd Person. 




4th 


Person. 


Masc. 


Fern 


. Com. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Nom. Sing, sa 


sti 


sja 


hann 


hun 


Ace. 


sik 




hann 


hana 


Dat. 


ser 




honum 


henni 


Gen. 


sin 




hans 


hennar. 



The first two pers. alone have the dual., but this dual is 
now commonly used as the pi.; and the old pi. only in high 
style; e. g. ver along with the king's name in official writing, 
e. g. ver FriSrekr Sjotti, "We Frederic the seventh." per in 
polite conversation, like the French vous and Germ, sie, e. g. 
ma ek spyrja y5r "may I ask you sir" etc. In old times ek 



PRONOUNS. 95 

and ver were used almost indiscriminately of one's self, {>u 
and |>er of Kings and Princes. 

213. The third pers. is in the pi. the same as in the sing, 
except that the nom. is wanting; it is actually wanting in the 
sing, also, and corresponds exactly in common use to the 
Latin se, sibi, sui, and is accordingly reciprocal, though it 
seems originally to have been personal like the Greek 0$, e, 
d«, 6v, and to have come from the nom sa, su, which now 
serves to fill up the imperfect demonstrative J>at. This con- 
clusion is drawn from its agreement with the first two pers. 
and from the fact that sa, su, in old writers are often used 
as personal pron., e. g. in Slurluson; i J>vi liSi var maer 
ein undarliga fogur, su nefndist Yrsa. In that folk was 
a maid of wonderful fairness, she called herself Yrsa; as 
well as from the Germ, tongues, where the nom. fern, has 
been kept as a pers. pron. up to the present time; thus 
Germ, sie Dutch zy, Engl. she. In addition , though this 
word in the oblique cases has not quite such an extended 
use as its counterpart in Greek; yet it is often found in 
short sentences, where another pers. is the particular sub- 
ject, but the third person is the subject of the whole period, 
e. g. (in one of Bp Vidalins sermons.) Trautt kann maSrinn 
at lata af {>eim glaep, sem hann ecki veit hvorja verkan hefir 
haft 1 ser, eSr hvat sik hefir tildregit at drfgja hann. Hardly 
can a man lay aside a sin, which he knows not what work- 
ings it has had on him, or what has drawn him to commit 
it. In this sentence there are two chief words, of the first, 
which is in the 3rd pers (viz the man), the pronoun is used 
which I have called the 3*d person; of the last which is in 
the 4th pers. (viz the sin) that is used to which 1 have given 
the name of the 4th pers. pron. It is certainly possible, be- 
sides the three usual persons, to think of a fourth; e. g. "he 
slew him," but no more; unless a new elliptical, or complete 
sentence is formed by means of a conjunction, by which indeed 
more words , but no more grammatical persons are obtained ; 
this 4tn pers. is expressed by hann, hun. But since it is not 
easy to have two subjects in the same sentence without a 



96 PRONOUNS. 

conjunction, there is very little difference between the 3^ and 
4ui pers. in the nom., so that the words sa and hann are used 
in the nom. almost indifferently by old writers. In later times 
hann became commonly the 3*d pers. in the nom., and. when 
another person is the subject, even in the oblique cases; but 
when the third person is the subject this word still always 
expresses the 4th; sa on the other hand became in the nom. 
the art., but in the other cases continued to denote the third 
pers. when at the same time it is the subject of the whole 
context; with other words it became reciprocal. If this view 
be the right one, none of these words were reciprocal in the 
oldest times, but all personal, as in English, to meet which 
use four pers. were distinguished especially in the oblique 
cases. All the cases and forms which are wanting in sa and 
hann are supplied by f>at, of which we shall soon have to 
speak. 

214. The old reciprocal on the other hand was the word 
sjalft, sjalfr, sjalf. which is used with all pers., as the Engl. 
self in myself, yourselves etc. This is inflected as a regular 
adj. but only indefinitely. 

215. Possessives are formed from all the first three per- 
sonal pron., by turning their gen. into adj. and declining 
them as such, yet only indefinitely. The possessives are con- 
sequently these : mitt (for mint), ockart, vort (vdrt) f)itt, yckart, 
ySart, (yftvart,) and sitt, which is used even if the subject is 
in the pi., because sin from which it is formed is both sing, 
and pi. gen.; mitt, f)itt, sitt, take i for i as often as single n 
follows in their inflection; their other peculiarities will be 
easiest learnt from a few examples: 



Sing. 


Neut. 


Masc. 


Fem. 


Neut. 


Masc. 


Fem. 


Nom. 


sitt 


sinn 


sin 


ockart 


ockar 


ockur 


Ace. 


sitt 


sinn 


sina 


ockart 


ockarn 


ockra 


Dat. 


&inu 


sinum 


sinni 


ockru 


ockrum 


ockarri 


Gen. 


sins 


sins 


sinnar 


ockars 


ockars 


ockarrar 



PRONOUNS. 



97 



Plur. Norn, sin sinir sinar ockur ockrir ockrar 

Ace. sin sina sinar ockur ockra ockrar 

Dal. sinum sinum sinum ockrum okrum ockrum 

Gen. sinna sinna sinna ockarra ockarra ockarra. 

So also are inflected, mitt mine, J>ilt thine, vort our (of 
several) , yckart your ( of two ) , ySart your ( of several). 
For ockart, yckart, are also found ockat, yckat. The 
Icelandic of the present day instead of these three pos- 
sessives ockart, yckart, yftart, uses only the gen. of the per- 
sonals, ockar, yckar, ySar, in all cases. From hann, hun, no 
possessive is formed, in this case the gen. hans, hennar, and 
in the pi. feirra (from J>at) only are used. 

216. On the other hand eigit, eiginn, eigin own, may be 
regarded as a possess, of sjalft, which takes these endings in 
the nom. and ace. sing, alone, but in all other cases of the 
sing and pi. whether def. or indef. remains invariably eigin. 

217. Demonstratives, like the foregoing, may be joined to 
subst.; these are chiefly |>at that, which has no masc. or fern., 
these cases being commonly supplied by sa, si'i; |f)etta, f>essi, 
this, hitt, hinn, hin, that, the other, which is also used especi- 
ally by old writers as the def. art. ; samt samr som, or in the 
def. form which is now more common sama, i, a, the same; 
slikt, slikr, sh'k, as well as jm'liktj f)vilikr, fwilik, the like; 
J>essligt, svoddan, such. 

218. Of these J)at and {)etta have many peculiarities in 



their inflection. 








Sing. 


Neut. 


Masc. 


Fem. 


Nom. 


{>at 


sa 


sii 


Ace. 


{>at 


|>ann 


t>a 


Dat. 


f)vi 


f)eim 


£eirri 


Gen. 


{>ess 


|>ess 


{>eirrar 


Plural. 






/j 


Nom. 


|>au 


|>eir 


t»8er 


Ace. 


j)au 


t>a 


{>aer 


Dat. 


|)eim 


£eim 


J)eim 


Gen. 


j)eirra 


|>eirra 


J>eirra 

7 



98 







PRONOUNS. 




Sing. 


Nom. 


J)etta 


fessi 


fessi 




Ace. 


fetta 


fenna 


fessa 




Dat. 


fessu 


fessum 


fessari 




Gen. 


fessa 


fessa 


fessarar 


Plur. 


Nom. 


fessi 


fessir 


fessar 




Ace. 


fessi 


fessa 


fessar 




Dat. 


fessum 


fessum 


fessum 




Gen. 


fessara 


fessara 


fessara 



That sa, su, do not properly belong; to fat has been al- 
ready remarked; that this last was originally perfect is seen 
from the Germ, das, der, die, and it is also found perfect in 
the Lettish tongues. This word is now used as the def. art. 
before the adj. Sja is an obsolete form of the common gend. 

The particle arna is wont to be added to this word in all 
its cases, to express the Swed. det der, det hdra, Engl, that 
there, (a vulgar strong demonstrative); but instead of fat arna 
a8 farna is more commonly said, and instead of sa arna often 
svarna. For fessari, fessarar, are found in old writers fessi 
and fessar, which corresponds more with the Angs. Sax. 

Hitt is inflected like sitt , except that it never takes the 
accent; we say consequently hinu, hins, pi. hin, hinum, hinna, 
etc., see also rule 171. 

Samt or sama is declined as a regular adj., as are also 
slikt, fvilikt, fessligt, but only as indef. Svoddan (soddan) 
is indecl. and belongs properly to the new tongue. 

219. Besides these, hann, hun, is also sometimes used 
as an art. with Proper Names, e. g. hann SigurSr, hun Ragn- 
hildr ; and also wiih the names of animals (horses, hounds etc.), 
but this also seems to belong the later tongue and every 
day speech. 

220. Relatives and interrogates are for the most part 
the same words, thus; hvort (hvart) which, whether, when the 
question is of two things or persons ; hvert (hvort) when more 
than two are spoken of ; \i\i\ikt, what like, of what kind. Hvort 



PRONOUNS. 



99 



makes in the ace. masc. hvorn (for hvoran), und hvert inserts 
j when the ending begins with the vowel, thus ; 



Sing. 


Neut. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Norn. 


hvort 


hvorr 


hvor 


hvert 


hverr 


hver 


Ace. 


hvort 


hvorn 


hvora 


hvert 


hverjan 


hverja 


Dat. 


hvoru 


hvorum 


hvorri 


hverju 


hverjum 


hverri 


Gen. 


hvors 


hvors 


hvorrar 


hvers 


hvers 


hverra r 


Plur. 














Norn. 


hvor 


hvorir 


hvorar 


hver 


hverir 


hverjar 


Ace. 


hvor 


hvora 


hvorar 


hver 


hverja 


hverjar 


Dat. 


hvorum 


hvorum 


hvorum 


hverjum 


hverjum 


hverjum 


Gen. 


hvorra 


hvorra 


hvorra 


hverra 


hverra 


hverra. 



Besides this hvert, which is used with subst., there was 
in the oldest tongue another form in the sing., which was 
used absolutely, viz, hvat neut., and hver common, which are 
thus declined. 



Sing. 


Neut. 


Common. 


Norn. 


hvat 


hver (hvar?) 


Ace. 


hvat 


hvern 


Dat. 


hvi 


hveim 


Gen. 


hvess 


hvess. 






Thus answering to f>at, and the Germ, was, wer, but of 
these cases only hvat what is met with absolutely in common 
speech, and hvern both absolutely and with subst. instead of 
hverjan, which is quite obsolete. 

221. To hvort , hvert, and hvat, helzt or sem helzt is 
added to express the Swed. ehvad eho or hvad som heist, 
Engl, who, or what, so ever. In like manner is added annat, 
thus hvort-annat the one, the other, (Dansk hinanderi), hvert 
or hvat-annat one another, (Dansk hverandre). Sitt is placed 
first, thus sitthvort, sitthvert, sitthvat, each his own, each one's. 
The words are commonly separated, but sitt is always 
placed first answering to the subject, e. g. f)eir lita sinn 
hverja att, they look each to his own side. 



100 PRONOUNS. 

From these words many actual compounds are also made, 
thus, hvort-tveggja doth, utrumque, which has a double declen- 
sion. The first part being indefinite and the last definite; e. g. 
pi. hvor-tveggju, hvorir-tvcggju, hvorar-tveggju etc. now how- 
ever hvoru-tveggju is commonly said in all the cases : in like 
manner annat-hvort either the one or the other , (alterutrum), 
both parts of which are declined in the usual way. Hvorugt 
(hvorigt) neither the one nor the other (neutrumj, is declined 
like an indef. adj. Serhvert, serhvat each, inflects its last part 
as usual. Hvert-eitt, hvat-eitt one and all, inflect both parts ; 
as also sumt-hvert, sumt-hvat somewhat, but here the masc. 
sing, must be excepted which is sumhverr. Eitthvert, eitthvat, 
Germ* etwas, on the other hand inflect only their last part, with 
the exception of the nom. and ace. sing. ; thus in the masc. 
einhverr, pi. einhver, einhverir, einhverjar. 

222. The following particles however are only relatives; 
er (old es) or eS is indecl. and denotes with adv. which ex- 
press time, place, etc., an idea of relation, e. g. |>a er then 
when (quum), f)ar er there that, where, (ubi) |>ar e5 since 
(quoniam). In connection with |>at it expresses which, who, 
e. g. in Sturluson: Fjolnir var son Yngvifreys, |>ess er Sviar 
hafa blotat leingi si'San. Fjolnir was son of Yngvefrey, whom 
the Swedes have long since worshipped. Sem which, is pro- 
perly a comparative conj. but is used by new writers in the 
same way as the above. Hann also is used as a relative, 
e. g. (Revel. XXII. 17.) Hverr hann f>yrstir, sa komi ! og 
hverr hann vill, sa meStaki vatn lifsins gefins! 

223. Interrogative particles are, hversu ho?v , hve (hvo), 
and especially in new writers hvat (hvaS), e. g. hversu gamall 
maSr er-tu ? how old art thou ? hvenser kemr hann ? when 
comes he ? hvaS kostafti f)aS mikiS ? how much did that cost ? 
HvaSa ansvers to the Swed. hvad for, Engl, what hind, e. g. 
hvaSa maSr er £aS? what sort of a man is that? Old writers 
commonly used hvat manna? or hvat (af) monnum? and from 
this hvat the new hvaSa has perhaps been formed. 



PRONOUNS 



lOt 



224. The so called Indef. Pronouns, are, besides those 
already mentioned (221.) as formed from hvort hvat, chiefly 
these: annat the one, the second, another, {alterum, secundum, 
aliud), which is inflected like the word galit, thus ; 



Sing. 


Neut. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Norn, 


annat 


annar 


onnur 


Ace. 


annat 


annan 


aora 


Dat. 


6Sru 


oSrum 


annarri 


Gen. 


annars 


annars 


annarrar 


Plural, 








Norn. 


onnur 


a5rir 


aorar 


Ace. 


onnur 


aSra 


aSrar 


Dat. 


oorum 


oorum 


oSrum 


Gen. 


annarra 


annarra 


annarra, 



It has the same form when the article is added, e. g. hit 
annat the other, second, (Dansk det andet) but when the 
question is of two, no article is used, e. g. het annar Ve, annar 
Vilir, the one hight Ve, the other Vilir. Nockut (nockurt) some 
thing is declined like ockart; sumt, sumr, sum some, like an 
indef. adj. 

225. Eitt, einn, ein, one, each one, atone, something, {unam, 
singulum , solum, quoddam) is declined like sitt , and also in 
the pi. when added to pi. subst.; e. g. ein skaeri a shear, 
einir skor a pair of shoes , einar buxur a pair of breeches ; 
It is also declined definitely, especially when it means alone, 
e. g. f)at eina that alone (id solum). Neitt naught, is also de- 
clined in the same way, but only indefinitely; it is used only 
in connection with another negation, e. g. ecki sa ek neitt, / 
did not see aught, vulg. / did not see naught. Another ne- 
gative deriv. from eitt is ecki (for eitt-gi) ; It is thus inflected; 



Sing. 


Neut. 


Masc. 


Fem. 


Norn. 


ecki 


eingi 


eingi 


Ace. 


ecki 


eingan 


einga 


Dat. 


eingu 


eingum 


eingri 


Gen. 


einskis 


einskis 


eingrar 



102 PHONOUNS- 

Plural. Nom. eingi eingir eingar 

Ace. eingi einga eingar 

Dat. eingum eingum eingum 

Gen. eingra eingra eingra. 

The word is compounded of eitt and the negative part, ending 
-gi, ki, the same perhaps as that with which hvorugt is formed. 
In the dat neut. einu-gi is also found, and in the gen. eingis; 
einkis; the reason of einskis is that both parts of the word 
have been thrown into the gen. (thus eins-gis). In those cases 
where the ending does not contain i, au is also found for ei, 
e. g. aungu, aungum, aungri, etc. In the masc. pi. also aung- 
vir , aungva , etc. By an old orthography eng was written 
for eing, and ong for aung in all cases. Finally in the new 
tongue this word has been changed into eckert, einginn, ein- 
gin, and in the neut. pi. eingin, the other cases have all kept 
their old shape. 

226. Mangi no one (Germ. Niemand, Lat. nemo), is used 
only in poetry ^ and has in the nom. and ace. manngi, gen. 
mannskis; it scarcely ever occurs in any other case. 

227. To these indef. numerals, as they are also called, 
seem to belong allt, allr, oil, all, which is declined indef., as 
also nog, nogr, nog, enough; margt and fatt may also be added, 
of which mention has been made above. 

228. The indef. person one {man), has no peculiar word 
to express it in Icel.; it is denoted 1. Often by the 3^ pers. 
sing, of verbs without any pronoun, e. g. ok heyrSi {)at siSan, 
and that one heard afterwards ; and it was heard after tear ds ; 
2. Often also by menu in the pi., as in English men or they 
is said; e. g. er menn toku at drecka, when men (they) took 
to drinking. 3. And sometimes in later times by maSr in 
the sing. 

The impers. there, it, is expressed in Icel. by f>at even 
though the verb stand in the pi., e. g. f>at eru margir, sein, 
there are many who etc. But it is perhaps more right to say 



NUMERALS. 



103 



J>eir eru margir they are many. Some also write far er, far 
em, but this seems to be a Danism (der er, Engl, there are.) 

229. The numerals or proper definite reckoning words are 
here, as in other tongues, chiefly cardinal and ordinal; the 
easiest way of obtaining a view of them is to arrange them 
side by side: 



Cardinals. 


Ordinals. 


eitt, einn, 


ein 


fyrsta i, a, 


tvo, tveir, 


tvaer 


annat, annar, oniiur 


frju, frir, 


frjar 


{mftja, 81, Sja 


fjogur, fjo 


rir, fjorar 


fjorSa, i, a, 


fimm 




fimta 


sex 




setta (sjotta) 


sjo (sjau) 




sjounda (sjaunda) 


atta 




atta (attunda) 


ni'u 




niunda 


tiu 




tiunda 


ellifu 




ellefta 


tolf 




tolfta 


frettan 




frettanda 


fjortan 




fjortanda 


fimtan 




fimtanda 


sextan 




sextanda 


saul j an (seytjan) 


sautjanda (seytjanda) 


atjan 




aijanda 


nitjan 




nitjanda 


tuttugu 




tuttugasta 


tutfugu ok 


eitt etc. 


tuttugasta ok fyrsta 


frjatiu 




t>ritugasta 


fjorutiu 




fertugasta 


fimtiu 




fimtugasta 


sextiu 




sextugasta 


sjotiu 




sjotugasta 


attatiu 




atlatugasta 


niuliu 




nitugasta 


hundraS (tiuiiu) 


hundraSasta 



104 



NUAIEKALS. 



Cardinals. 

hundred ok tiu (ellifutiu) 
tvo hundred (etc.) 
fmsund. 



Ordinals. 

hundradasta ok tiunda 
tvo hundradasta 
{msundasta. 



Instead of sautjan sjautjan is also found, and instead of 
{>rjatiu etc. j)ijaligir and f>rjatigi, etc. 

230. The first four are declined; eitt has been already 
treated of; bsedi both has a great likeness to tvo, but since 
each of them has peculiarities of its own they shall be here 
exhibited at length, 



Nom. 
Ace. 


Neut. 

tvo 

tvo 

kju 

frju 


Masc. 
tveir 
tvo (tva) 


Fern, 
tvser 
tvser 


Neut. 

baebi 

bsedi 

fjogur 
fjogur 


Masc. 
badir 
bada 

badum 
beggja 
fjorir 
fjora 


Fein, 
badir 
badar 


Dat. 
Gen. 
Nom. 
Ace. 


tveim 

tveggja 

|>rir 

|>rja 


f)rjar 
frjar 


fjdrar 
fjorar 


Dat. 
Gen. 


JDrim 
friggja 


L 




fjorum 
fjogra. 





For tveim and £rim (J>rem) are also often found tveimr, 
j)rimr (or Jmmur tribus), and |>remr is also written. The rest 
up to hundred* are indecl., above 100 they areMeclined in two 
ways. If they stand absolutely (without subst. ) both the 
numeral, which denotes how many hundreds or thousands are 
meant, as well as these words, hundred*, fmsund, themselves 
are declined, e. g. eitt hundred' er oflitit, one hundred is too 
little, einu hundradi, eins hundreds, tvo hundred, tveim hund- 
rudum , tveggja hundrada etc. But if they stand in connection 
with a subst. then only the actual numeral is inflected, which 
agrees with the subst., while hundred and Jmsund remain un- 
changed in the nom. sing, or pi. if the subst. be in the pi. ; 
e. g. ecki fa3r madr store jord fyrir tvo hundrud dali. A man 
does not get much ground for 200 dollars; af premr hundrud 



NUMERALS. 105 

dolnm veror rentan tolf dalir a ari. Of 200 dollars the in- 
terest is 12 dollars yearly; {>at er fjogra hundruS (or |>usund) 
dala virSi, that is worth 400 (4,000) dollars. 

231. Our forefathers often reckoned by the great hundred, 
(120) in Iceland, stort or tolfraatt hundraft, opposed to the small 
100 smatt or tirsett; in this case tiuti'u was put which for 100 
and ellifutui for 110, answering to which 1 have not met with 
any ordinals. The case is the same with jmsund. In regard 
to inflection hundraS is, as remarked above, a regular neut. 
and {msund also, yet this last often occurs in old writers as 
fem., e. g. tvser fmsundir manna ; at the present day it is always 
neut. at least with subst., e. g. hann gaf tvo fmsund dali fyrir 
f>at. Similar subst. are par (pi. por) a pair, tugr a number 
consisting of 10, tylft, one of 12, skockr 10,000; million, has 
also been taken into the tongue in later times; but for the 
numbers after this, the Icelanders have again formed peculiar 
expressions, viz, tvimillion, billion, fjrimillion trillion, fjormil- 
lion, quadrillion. 

232. Of the ordinals fyrsta is properly the def. fem. of 
the adj. fyrra, fyrst, which wants the pos. (207.) Annat has 
already been treated of (224), J>ri5ja inserts,/ throughout, but 
in other respects is declined as a regular def. adj.; all the 
rest are inflected as adj. in the def. form. 

233. The ordinals under 20 are formed from the card., 
in such a way that Sa, (ta) is added to those which end in 
a cons., and undi and -ndi to those in a vowel; atta and ellefta 
make no exception to this rule, for atta and ellifu seem in 
the oldest times not to have had a vowel after them; comp. 
Germ, acht, eilf, and as far as the latter word is concerned, 
the Icel. word tolf itself, and Germ, zwolf. 

Ordinals over 20 are all formed in -asta, and these not 
from their respective card, but from temporals in -tugt, tugr, 
tug. 

234. Of temporals the Icelanders have many kinds, e. g. 
from nott night comes einnaett (masc. einnsettr) one night old, 



106 NUMERALS. 

[)rina;tt, etc., neetrgamalt nightold is also said , and from vetur 
winter^ year, veturgamalt winter old, yearold; tvsevett masc. 
tvaevetr two winters old, |>revett, etc. ; but it is only from a 
few numerals that such words can be formed ; on the other 
hand it is a common custom to express these relations by the 
gen. pi. of cardinals, and subst., e. g. tveggja, f)riggja-natta; 
fjogra- fim- sexvetra ; tveggja-atqvseSa-orS dissyllabic words, 
f>riggja-J)umlunga-naglar three inch nails fjogra-blaSa-form, 
four-leaf-furm, 4% atta- tolf sextan- blaSa- form 8y»>, 12mo 
16m». priggja- manna -nefnd triumvirate, tiu-manna - nefnd 
decemvir at e , etc. From 10 and the others peculiar adj. are 
formed , which are used both of age , measure and the like, 
answering to the Latin in arium , these are tvitugt , tvitugr, 
tvi'tug, 20 years old, 20 fathoms long, etc. (Lat vice narium) ; 
f)ritugt, fertugt, fimtugt, sextugt, and sjotugt. Above 70. they 
are formed in -raett, rseSr, rseo", e. g. attaraett octogenarium, 
nirsett, tirsett, etc. 

235. Of adverbs which express the Engl, time, (Swed. gang), 
the Old Norse has only two namely, tvisvar twice, and f)risvar 
thrice, all others are expressed by the word sinn time, in 
the dat., e. g. einu sinni, once, fjorum sinnum 4 times, fimm 
sinnum 5 times, etc. Tveim sinnum, })rim sinnum, or tvisvar 
sinnum, fnisvarsinnum are also said, the last of which how- 
ever are tautological. "The first time" and such like phrases 
are expressed by the same word in the ace. sing, and the art. 
hit, which is sometimes left out, e. g. (hit) fyrsta, annat, f)rioja 
sinn: Instead of sinn skipti is also used; (hit) fyrsta skipti 
etc., and for hit the prep, l is often put, e. g. i fjoro*a sinn, 
or skipti, etc. 

236. Distributives are found only from the first four, e. g. 
eitt, einn, ein (singulum), which when it has this meaning 
makes in the ace. masc. einan; tvennt , jjrennt, fernt (masc. 
tvennr, j>rennr, fern). From these are formed the subst. eining 
oneness prenning threeness, trinity, (like the Latin trinitas.) 
Besides the Icelanders use two modes of expression instead of 
distributives, they either repeat the card, with ok between, 
e. g. tveir ok tveir, }>iir ok jm'r, fimm ok fimm etc., or throw 



NUMERALS. 1 07 

the card, into the dat. adding the word saman, e. g. sex, tin, 
hundru&um, {nisundum, saman, which last answers very nearly 
to the Swed. hundratals, etc. 

237. Mulliplicatives are formed in -fait, -faldr, -fold, 
e. g. einfalt simple, tvofalt twofold, J)refalt threefold, ferfalt 
fjorfalt, fourfold, fimmfalt fivefold, hundracifalt hundredfold, 
etc. From these again verbs in -falda are formed, e. g. tvo- 
falda to double, |>refalda to treble, ferfalda (fjorfalda), fimm- 
falda, margfalda to multiply, etc. 

238, From the ordinals between three and twelwe, subst. 
are formed, which express how great a quantity, these are: 
f>ri?jjungr a third part, fjorSungr, fimtiingr, settungr fsjottungr), 
sjound, altungr, niund, tiund, and tolfiungr, for from ellefta the 
word would be too long; instead of that from tvo or annat 
helmingr (helfingr) is formed from haflt, halfr , half. From 
these again spring verbs which denote division into so many 
parts, or the subtraction of some such part; e. g. helminga to 
halve, JuiSjunga to part into three, trithe , tiunda to tithe, or 
give tithes. Some of these words how r ever have taken, like 
fjerding, atting, etc., on the continent, a more limited sense in the 
new tongue ; new subst. therefore have been formed with 
partr which is added to the ordinals, so that both words are 
declined in their own way, e. g. einn {)riSjipartr a third, ek 
helt einum JmSjaparti / got a third part; hann feck tvo 
{>riSjuparta he got two thirds. So also fjorSipartr, fimtipartr, 
elleftipartr, tuttugastipartr , hundraftastipartr, etc. From these 
no verbs can be made, but in their stead, at tviskipta, f)ri- 
skipta, fjorskipta, fimskipla, etc. are used. 



108 



CHAPTER VIII. 
Of Verbs. 

239. The Icelandic verbs, like the Greek, Latin, Swed. 
and Dansk, have two forms, active and passive, and in each 
the four usual moods; indie, conjunct., imperat., and infin.; 
but only two tenses can be expressed by inflection of the 
word, viz, the present and the imperfect; though the pres. is 
also often used for a future , as in Angl. Sax. and other lan- 
guages. The other tenses are formed by means of auxiliary 
verbs as in Engl. In the three moods above named, numbers 
and persons are distinguished; but the pers. pron. are com- 
monly added, because the difference between the persons, es- 
pecially in the pass., is not everywhere definite and clear. 
The participles are as usual the pres. act., which has often 
also the meaning of a fut. part pass.; and the past part. pass, 
the neut. of which in the indef. form is always at the same 
time a supine; from this supine a new pass. sup. may be 
formed, as in Swed. by a new pass, ending; which however 
commonly occurs only in the neut., seldom in the other gend. 
and cases as a complete part. 

240. The infin. always contains the original vowel of the 
verb, and it seems therefore most right to name the verbs after 
this mood; but at the same time the conjug. of the verbs is 
seen more plainly^ though not quite surely, from the 1st pers. 
pres. and this is doubtless the reason why Bjorn Haldorson 
in his Dictionary always arranges them under this form. Of 
the other jtenses the pres. and imperf. indie, together with 
the past part, or supine, are the most important, because all 
the rest can be derived from them. 

241. The inflection of verbs has much resemblance in 
all Gothic tongues; that division of them therefore which is 
the right in one of these languages, is also right for all the rest. 



VERBS. 109 

This division however shews itself most plainly of all in 
Icelandic, since this tongue seems in general to lie nearest 
to the common spring; thus we instantly discover a ground of 
division in the pres. ind. , which separates all verbs into two 
main classes, the one of which always ends in the pres. in a 
cons., the other commonly in a vowel; the one is always 
monosyll. in the pres. with change of vowel, the other is in- 
variably polysyllabic; and most frequently keeps its vowel 
unchanged; the one ends in the sup., and past part. pass, in 
it, inn , in, the other in t, dr, d, so that they are distinct 
from each other in all their root tenses. The latter answers 
to the so called verba pura in Greek, and the 1st, 2nd, and 4th ? 
conjug. in Latin, the former to the verba impura in Greek, and 
the 3rd conjug. in Latin. The Mceso Gothic and Anglo -Sax., 
have the same main division of the same verbs; as also the 
new Teutonic tongues, Germ, and Dutch, though Adelung 
counted all impure verbs as irregular ; but they are in Iceland, 
at least very nearly as regular as the verba pura, though 
they follow quite different rules. Here too, as in the nouns, 
the so called pure are conjugated in a simpler way; the im- 
pure being more artificial and harder in their method of inflec- 
tion, and this perhaps has given rise to their being looked 
upon as irregular. 



Simpler Class. 

242. These two main classes are again divided into se- 
veral subordinate ones by the imperf.: The first main class 
has the imperf. either in afii or 57 (di, ti), without change of 
vowel; or in U (di, ti), with change of vowel in its first syll. 
It is thus divided into three subordinate classes, of which the 
first has the vowel «, as is clearly seen in the 1st pers. pres. 
imperf. and in the imperat.; the second the vowel i, which 
also comes out plainly in the 1st pers., though in the imperat. 
it has been thrown away by contraction; the third has no 
vowel in the 1st pers. pres. but seems originally to have had 
u 7 because this ending has been thrown away in many cases in 



110 



VERBS. 



the Old Norse, e. g. in the fem. sing, and neut. pi., of subst. 
where u seems to have given rise to the change of vowel, 
which was afterwards kept though the ending itself fell away, 
This 3r d class distinguishes itself also by change of vowel in 
the imperf. For the rest the inflection in all three classes is 
nearly exactly the same, and only the formation different. 
They are therefore rightly reckoned under one and the same 
conjugation, though Baden, Botin, Sjoborg, and others have 
in the new tongues assumed the several classes in this main 
division, to be so many separate conjugations, but those of 
the more artificial, as a single one,, or as irregulars; a mistake 
which is general in almost all grammars of the East - Euro- 
pean tongues; the characteristic tenses will be easiest seen by 
a comparative table. 



Pres. 


Indie. 


Imperf. 


Sup. 


Infin. 




1st Class ek 


elska 


elskafti 


elskat 


elska 


to love 


2 nd Class ek 


renni 


rendi 


rent 


renna 


to make to run 


3m Class ek 


tern 


tamdi 


j tamit 
\ tamda 


temja 


to tame. 



243. The agreement of these conjugations with those of 
the Angl. Sax. and Moesogothic is evident, however different 
the arrangement assumed by various writers may be; they 
answer to one another in the following way. 

Icel. Anglo Sax. Mosso Gothic. 

1 spjalla -afti 1 spellian -ode 3 spillon -oda to talk, spelt 

2 hafa -Si 2 habban -ha?fde 1 haban -aida to have 

3 ssekja sokti 3 secan, sohte 2 sokjan -ida to seek. 



To these in Greek the verbs in «o, so, oa 
in Latin the 1st, 4tn, and 2»d conjug. thus; 



answer, and 



Icel. 

1 ek bera borafii 

2 mik dreymi-r dreymdi 

3 ek |>egi f>agSi 



Latin. 

1 (fora-o foravi) 

4 dormi-o dormivi 

2 tace-o tacui. 



In the Lettish tongues the same division is plainly the only 
right one, and it may be also in the Sclavonic and Finnish. 



SIMPLER CLASS. 



Ill 



244. As examples in all the three regular classes of the 
simpler class, kalla to call, brenna to burn, and telja to tell, 
{reckon) will be exhibited ; 





1st Class. 


2nd Class. 


3rd Class. 


Indie. 




Active 




Pres. Sing. 


1. ek kalla 


brenni 


tel 




2- fm kallar 


brennir 


telr 




3. hann kallar 


brennir 


telr 


Plur. 


1. ver kollum 


bremium 


teljum 




2. |>er kalliS 


brenniS 


teliS 




3. feir kalla 


brenna 


telja 


Imperf. Sing. 


1. ek kallaSi (a) 


brendi (a) 


taldi (a) 




2. fm kallaSir 


brendir 


taldir 




3. hann kalla5i 


brendi 


taldi 


Plur. 


1. ver kolluSum 


brendum 


toldum 




2. j)er kolluSuS 


brenduS 


tolduS 




3. fyeir kolluSu 


brendu 


toldu. 


Conjunctive. 








Pres. Sing. 


1. ek kalli 


brenni 


teli 




2 {m kallir 


brennir 


telir 




3. hann kalli 


brenni 


teli 


Plur. 


1. ver kollum 


brennum 


teljum 




2. f)er kalliS 


brenni'5 


telid 




3. f>eir kalli 


brenni 


teli. 


Imperf. Sing. 


1. ek kallaSi 


brendi 


teldi 




2. ]bu kalla&r 


brendir 


teldir 




3. hann kalla^i 


brendi 


teldi 


Plur. 


1. ver kollucaim 


brendum 


teldum 




2. |>er kolluSuft 


brenduo* 


telduS 




3. J)eir kolluSu 


brendu 


teldu. 


Imperat. 


kalla- (ou) 


brenn- (du) 


tel- (du) 


Infin. 


at kalla 


brenna 


telja 


Part. 


kallandi 


brennandi 


teljandi 


Sup. 


kallat 


brent 


talit. 



11 z 


i 


VERBS. 




1*t Class. 


2nd Class. 


3rd Class. 


Indie. 




Passive. 




Pres. Sing. 


kallast 


brennist 


lelst 




kallast 


brennist 


telst 




kallast 


brennist 


telst 


Plur 


kollumst 


brennumst 


teljumst 




kallizt 


brennizt 


tellzt 




kallast 


brennast 


teljast 


Imperf. Sing. 


kallaSist 


brendist 


taldist 




kallaSist 


brendist 


taldist 




kallaSist 


brendist 


taldist 


Plur. 


kolluftumst 


brendumst 


toldumst 




kolluSuzt 


brenduzt 


tolduzt 




kolluSust 


brendust 


toldust 


Conjunctive. 








Pres. Sing. 


kallist 


brennist 


telist 




kallist 


brennist 


telist 




kallist 


brennist 


telist 


Plur. 


kollumst 


brennumst 


teljumst 




kallizt 


brennizt 


telizt 




kallist 


brennist 


telist 


Imperf. Sing. 


kallaftist 


brendist 


teldist 




kallaftist 


brendist 


teldist 




kallaSist 


brendist 


teldist 


Plur. 


kolluSumst 


brendumst 


teldumst 




ko!lu5uzt 


brenduzt 


telduzt 




kolluSust 


brendust 


teldust 


Imperat. 


kallastu 


brenstu 


telstu 


Infill. 


kallast 


brennast 


teljast 


Part. 


(kallanSist) 


(brennandist) 


(teljandist) 


Sup. Pass. 


kallazt 


brenzt 


talizt. 



245. This Class is the most numerous and simplest of all, 
the common vowel change of a, whenever it occurs, is the 
only thing to which heed must be paid. The Supine in at is 
the neut. of the Part. pass, which is regularly declined as 



SIMPLER CLASS. 



113 



well indef. kallat, kallaSr, kolluS, as def. kallaSa, kallaSi, 
kallaSa , but the Sup. Pass, kallazt of this class is found 
only in the neut.; farther examples for practice are: 



pjona to serve 

njdsna to spy out 

herja to herry 

skoSa to look 

tala to talk 

hata to hate 

baka to hake 

rita to write 



oetla to aim sofna to sleep 

kosta to cost syndga to sin 

kasta to cast tiSka to be wont 

hota to threaten blakta to quiver 

hljoSa to sound vernda to guard 

sauma to sew hugs a to think 

safna to gather sagla to saw badly 

sauna to prove lakra to dribble. 



1»* Class. 

246. This class also is simple and regular, without change 
of vowel , and in all its inflections like the foregoing, from 
which it distinguishes itself only by having the vowel i in 
the pres ; as also by having no vowel in the pret. before 
the ending, and by ending in the imperative in the character- 
istic letter itself. 

It also contains many words, nearly all with weak vowels 
in the chief syll., and for the most part deriv. from subst. or 
adj. Those of which the characteristic is a hard cons, or s 
take t for d in the pret.; those with S receive dd, and those 
with g or k after a weak vowel insert j where the ending 
begins with a vowel; but those with g or k after o insert v 
in the same cases, e. g. 



deyfa 


-i, Si 


to deafen 


teygja 


-gi 5 


gSi 


to entice 


aefa 


-i, Si 


to practice 


vasgja 


'Sh 


gSi 


to spare 


erfa 


-i ? Si 


to inherit 


vigja 


•Sh 


gSi 


to hallow 


laera 


-i, Si 


to teach 


byggja 


SSh 


bygSi 


to build 


gera 


-i, Si 


to make 


hryggja 


-SS 1 '? 


gSi 


to trouble 


kemba 


-i,di 


to comb 


syrgja 


Sh 


gSi 


to sorrow 


steypa 


-i,ti 


to pour 


heingja 


-&9 


gSi 


to hang 


gapa 


-i, ti 


to gape 


leingja 


-&> 


gSi 


to lengthen 


kippa 


-i, kipti 


to snatch 


fylgja 


•&> 


gSi 


to follow 


leysa 


-i, ti 


to loose 


veikja 


-ki, 


kti 


to weaken 



114 



VERBS. 



missa -i, misti 


to miss 


f)eckja -cki, ckti 


to know 


prfSa -i, pr^ddi 


to adorn 


merkja -ki, kti 


to mark 


reita -i, Iti 


to pluck 


Jeinkja -ki, kti 


to think 


hitta -lti ? tti 


to find out 


fylkja -ki, kti 


to set in 
array 


birta -ti, ti 


to reveal 


stockva -ckvi, ckti 


to sprinkle 



All those which have the characteristic letters gl, fl, gn, 
and fn, take d in the imperf. e. g. sigla to sail, sigli, sigldi, 
stefna to stem stefni, stefndi; efla to strengthen, hefna to 
revenge, nefna to name, rigna to rain, etc.; but those which 
have pn, kn, or the like, belong to the 1st class; those also 
which have m for their characteristic take d, e. g. dreyma to 
dream, mik dreymdi / dreamed, skemma to laugh away, skemdi. 
Those which have t after a cons, take no new t or d in the 
imperf., e. g. vacnta to wait , vaenti, velta to overthrow velti, 
festa, to fasten, festi, lypta to lift, lypti, which in all these 
is also the 1st pers. pres. 

It seems impossible to give any sure rule for those which 

have r5, Id, nd, I, 11, n, or mi, as their characteristic, because 

some take d, others t, and some both, but d, seems more 

common in old writers, t (dt) in new, e. g. 



girSa 


i 


girSi 
girdti 


lenda 


i 


lendi 
lendti 


haela 




heeldi 


maela 




maelti 



to gird 

to land 

to praisi 
to speak 



fella feldi to fell 

stilla stilti to still 

sfna sfndi to show 

rsena raenti to plunder 

to praise kenna kendi to teach 

nenna nenti to set ones, 
mind on. 

247. Monosyllables in a add i in the pres, Si in the im- 
perf. and 5 in the supine, e. g. spa to foretell, ek spai, spaSr, 
hefi spaS; so also stra to straw, ma to wear, ga to take heed 
etc. Yet the pres. is sometimes found without i, e. g. hann 
forsmar or forsmair he scorns. 

248. Some are irregular in the pres. conjunctive, where 
they change the vowel; others in the supine which they form 
after the 1st class in at («5>, these want the part. pass. Most 



SIMPLER CLASS. 



115 



are irregular in both respects alike, some in other ways 
most important of these are : 



the 



Infin. 


Pres. 


Imperl-'. 


Conjunct. 


Sup. 




vaka 


vaki 


vakti 


vekti 


vakit 


to wake 


flaka 


flaki 


flakti 


flekti 


ilakit 


to crack 


hafa 


hefi 


hafSi 


hefSi 


haft 


to have 


na 


nae 


na5i 


nseSi 


naS 


to near 


|)VO 


(J)va) f)vse 


J)Vo5i 


{)vs&5i 


J)vegit 


to wash 


Ija 


ljse (le) 


left 


m 


led 


to lend 


(ske 


skeftr 


skeSi 


skeSi 


skeS 


to happen) 


vara 


vari 


varSi 


or varaSi 


varat 


to wear 


f)ora 


fori 


{)0r5i 


J>yr5i 


]3orat 


to dare 


t>ola 


|>oli 


|>oldi 


f>yldi 


folat 


to bear 


tdra 


tori 


torSi 


torSi 


tdrat 


to live poorly 


una 


uni 


undi 


yndi 


unat 


to be content 


duga 


dugi 


dugSi 


dygSi 


dugat 


to be enough 


triia 


trui 


truSi 


try5i 


truat 


to trow 


vela 


veli 


velti 


velti 


velat 


to cheat. 



Of these vaka has a double form in the part, pass., viz 
vakinn and vaktr; ske, which belongs to the new tongue and 
is impers., has also in the pres. sker; vara to warn is regul- 
arly inflect, after the 1st class, as also duga to be good ; for 
trySi trySi is both said and written, which is more regular but 
very rare; truadr trusty , retttruadr righttr 'owing , orthodox is 
used as an adj.; of vela a part. pass, veltr, is found, and of 
lifa lifinn in the poets. 

All those which in the pres. indie, change their vowel 
take again in the pi. the vowel of the infin. ; which however 
in the I s * pers. is again changed it if be a, e. g. 
Sing. 



Plur. 



The same takes place in all verbs of the following class. 
as well regular as irregular. 

8* 



1. 


hefi 


nae 


veld 


2. 


hefir 


naer 


veldr 


3. 


hefir 


naer 


veldr 


1. 


hofum 


naum 


voldum 


2. 


hafio" 


naiS 


valdiS 


3. 


hafa 


na 


vaida, 



116 



VERBS 



3"' Class. 

249. This class distinguishes itself by having no final 
vowel in the pres., and by changing the chief vowel in the 
imperf.; after this vowel it has a simple , seldom a double 
cons., and never position as its characteristic; the first syll. 
has also commonly a simple vowel, and the part. pass, has 
most often a second form (194.), e. g. def. hit talda, hinn 
taldi, hin talda, indef. talit, talinn, talin. The imperf. takes t 
only where the characteristic is k, p, or t, in other cases d 
or S by the common rules; further examples are; 



berja 


ber 


barSi 


berSi 


barit 


to smite 


dvelja 


dvel 


dvaldi 


dveldi 


dvalit 


to dwell 


velja 


vel 


valdi 


veldi 


valit 


to chose 


venja 


ven 


vandi 


vendi 


vanit 


to wean, accustom 


lemja 


lem 


lamdi 


lemdi 


lamit 


to beat 


leggja 


legg 


lagSi 


legSi 


lagt (lagit 


) to lay down 


vekja 


vek 


vakti 


vekti 


vakit 


to ?vaken 


|>ekja 


|>ek 


|>akti 


J>ekli 


f)akit 


to thatch {cover) 


qveSja 


qve*S 


qvaddi 


qveddi 


qvadt 


to take leave 


gleSja 


gle5 


gladdi 


gleddi 


gladt 


to gladden 


hvetja 


hvet 


hvatti 


hvetti 


hvatt 


to whet 


krefja 


kref 


krafSi 


krefffi 


krafit 


to crave 


glepja 


giep 


glapti 


glepti 


glapit 


to lead astray 


spyrja 


spyr 


spurSi 


spyrSi 


spurt 


to ash, speer 


hy\ja 


hyl 


huldi 


hyldi 


hulit 


to hide 


stynja 


styn 


stundi 


styndi 


stunit 


to groan 


rymja 


rym 


rumdi 


rymdi 


rumt 


to roar 


tyggja 


tygg 


tugSi 


tygSi 


tuggit 


to chew 


tyfcja 


lyk 


lukti 


lykti 


lukt 


to shut to 


rySja 


ryS 


ruddi 


ryddi 


rudt 


to root out 


%tja 


flyt 


flutti 


flytti 


flutt 


to carry 


t>ysja 


i>ys 


Jmsti 


Jysti 


|)USt 


to rush on 


tfja 


if 


luSi 


w 


lud (luit) 


to hammer 



So also ftyja to fly in new writers, but in old with change 
of vowel, imperf. ftySi, part ftyit. Some have two forms in 
the infin. and pres. fcreyja or fcra to long for, heyja or ha to 



SIMPLER CLASS. 



117 



give (battle)^ aeja or a to graze, taeja or ta to card wool, the 
imperf. is commonly JraSi, etc. 

250. The four following do not change their vowel; 



setja 


set 


setti 


setti 


sett 


to set 


selja 


sel 


seldi 


seldi 


selt 


to sell 


skilja 


skil 


skildi 


skildi 


skilit 


to separate 


vilja 


vil 


vildi 


vildi 


viljat 


to will. 



The last takes beside vill (for vilr) in the 2nd and 3rd pers, 
pres. in old writers, in new vilt in the 2nd 5 and vill in the 
3iti- for the infin. vilja vildu is also found. These six are 
irregular, which in the pres. seem to belong to the 2nd class. 



i>y k J a 

yrkja 

ssekja 
kaupa 
segja 
Jegja 



f>yki 

yrki | 

saeki 
kaupi 

segi 



fotti 


fjaetti 


f)6tt 


to think 


orti 


yrti 


ort 


) to write verse 
)to work 


(yrkti 


yrkti 


yrkt) 


sotti 


saetti 


sott 


to seek 


keypti 


keypti 


keypt 


to bug 


sagc)i 


segSi 


sagt 


to sag 


jpagfti 


f)eg5i 


fa gat 


to be silent, 



New writers often use f)6kti, orkti, sokti, j>aekti, etc., 
t>egja makes in the imperat. |>egi peace, be silent! 

251. Words with r, or s, for their characteristic remain 
in new writers alike in all three pers. sing, pres.; in old 
writers rr, ss, are often used in the 2nd and 3id pers. e. g. ek 
spyr, |m spyrr, hann spyrr, etc. 

252. The following are also irregular in the pres., where 
they become monosyll., and like the imperf. of the 2nd con- 
jugation: 





( ami 


unni 


ynni 


unnt 


to grant 


unna 


\ unni 


unti 


ynti 




to love 


kunna 


kann 


kunni 


kynni 


kunnat 


to be able 


muna 


man 


mundi 


myndi 


munat 


to remember 


munu 
mundu 


mun 
man 


mundi 


( mundi 
mvndi 


wanting 


will, would 



118 



VKRIJS. 



skulu 
sky Id u 


j ska! 


skyldi 


skyldi 


wanting 


shall, ought 


fmrfa 


|>arf 


jDUlfti 


I>yrfti 


fmrft 


to be needful 


eiga 


a 


atti 


aetti 


alt 


to own 


mega 


ma 


matti 


maetti 


matt 


to be able 


knega 
kna 


kna 


knatti 
knaSi 


knsetti 


(knatt) j 
(knaS) | 


to be able 


vita 


veit 


vissi 


vissi 


vitat 


to know 



From skulu there is also found a pres. conj. skyli in old 
Poets. Tbe adj. kunnt, kunnr, kunn known, skylt, skyldr, 
skyld, bound, as also skylit, skylinn, skylin, together with 
vitat, vitaSr, vituS, fixed, may be regarded as part, pass.; 
knega and kna are merely poetical expressions. 

These words are thus declined in the pres. 
Sing. 



Plur. 



So also are inflected, 

ann f)arf ma 

man mun kna. 

New writers however use nearly without exception the 
endings i5, a, in the 2nd, and 3rd pers. pi. of all these. 



1 


kann 


skal 


a 


veit 


2. 


kannt 


skalt 


att 


veizt 


2. 


kann 


skal 


a 


veit 


1. 


kunnum 


skul um 


eigum 


vitum 


2. 


kunniQ 


skuluS 


eigu5 « 


viliS 


3 


kunna 


skulu 


eigu 


vita. 



253. In addition the following are irregular in a peculiar 



way 



nua 


n? 


neri 


nuit 


to rub 


sniia 


sn^ 


sneri 


snuit 


to turn 


rda 


ra3 


reri 


roit 


to row 


groa 


grae 


greri 


groit 


to grow 


soa 


sae 


seri 


soit 


to sow, scatter. 



The last is obsolete and dissolved into two words, viz, 
soa to scatter is regular after the l«t class, and sa to sow, 
regular, like spa and the other monosyll. of the 2nd class. 



MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 119 

More complex class. 

254. This division ends always in aeons, in the 1st pers. 
pres. indie., in the imperat., and in the imperf.; but in the imperf, 
the vowel is changed at the same time, and by this change 
of sound it is divided again into subordinate classes. Of such 
classes five have been commonly adopted, but it seems clearer 
and more right to assume six, three of which keep the same 
vowel in the sing, and plur. , of the imperf., while the rest 
take a new vowel change in the plur. of the imperf. \ the former 
have commonly the same vowel in the supine as in the infin. 
the latter always one different from that in that tense. 

The character of these six classes in their Principal tenses 
may be seen from the following table ; 

1. spinna spinn spann pi. spunnum spynni spunnit to spin 

2. drepa drep drap — drapum draepi drepit to slay 

3. bita bit beit — bitum bid bitit to bite 

4. lata laet let — letum leti Jatit to leave 

5. brjota brft braut — brutum bryti brotit to break 

6. grafai gref grof — grofum graefi grafit to dig. 

They distinguish themselves solely by the formation of 
their tenses, in the inflection itself they are all entirely alike, 
and it thus seems impossible to assume that they make more 
than a single conjugation. 

255. This division answers exactly to that which is also 
right in the German tongues , "though different writers have 
exhibited it in different ways. In my Angl. Sax. Grammar I 
have followed the same, but Zahn in his edition of Ulfilas, 
and Adelung in his Germ. Grammar, differ a little from this 
scheme. 



Icel. 


Angl. Sax. 




Zahn 


Adelung. 


1. bind 


1. binde 


4. 


binda \ 


1. gebe 

( 3. greife 
| 2. lasse 


2. gef 

3. grip 

4. laet 


2. gife 

3. gripe ) 

4. laete j 


3. 
1. 


giba j 
greipa 


5. m 

6 gref 


5. buge 

6. grafe 


5. 

2. 


biuga 
graba 


4. biege 

5. grabe 



120 VERIJS. 

Though these verbs answer to the so called impure verbs 
in Greek, and to the 3m conjug. in Latin, they do not how- 
ever agree nearly so much with these tongues as those 
of the former division ; the reason of this is that the 2«^ Di- 
vision in the Gothic tongues is not arranged, as in the Thra- 
cian, after the characteristic letter, but after the vowel of the 
1st syll., of which fact, it is easy to convince oneself on 
comparing, e. g. kjosa to chose with blasa to blow, 
at kjosa k^s kaus kusu kysi kosit 

at blasa blaes bles blesu blesi blasil. 

These have the same characteristic but are nevertheless 
formed quite differently. If on the other hand we compare 
kjosa with brjota, and blasa with lata, we then see that they 
are formed exactly in the same way, though they have quite 
different characteristic letters , because they have the vowel 
of the chief syll. in common. This vowel however need not 
be entirely the same; e. g. fljuga, to fly, luta to bow, bend, 
etc., are inflected exactly like kjosa; this is the reason why 
it seems surer to ground the division on the vowel of the 
imperf., than on that of the infm. But in the Latin it is seldom 
that any change of vowel takes place , where also only the 
characteristic letter and not the vowel of the chief syll., comes 
into consideration; e.g. Icedo is inflected like ludo and plaudo ; 
veko like iraho , lingo, like jungo, etc. For these reasons 
the two divisions cannot exactly answer to each other, though 
numbers of words are the same in both tongues , e. g. ala 
alere, eta edere, vada vahere, ek ber. fer-o etc. 

256. Farther the more artificial Division changes the vowel 
of the sing. pres. viz , a, o, to e : a, 0, to ce, ii ? jii, jo to y, 
au, to ey; and this in all cases; the other vowels e, i, ei, etc. 
remain always unchanged. This change of vowel takes place 
in all the three pers. sing., not as in the German tongues only 
in the 2>"i and 3m ; The actual chief vowel of the verb therefore 
is not to be found with certainty in the 1st pers., but in the 
verbs must be sought in the infin. see (240.). Those of which 
the characteristic letter is /*, n, or 5, double it in the 2nd and 
3m pers. in old writers, but in new are like in all 3 pers. 



MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 



121 



(251). They are also often found with 8, d, or t, added to 
the 2nd pers., e. g. at ausa, to sprinkle, ek eys, |>u eyst, or 
eyss, hann eys, or eyss. In the pi. the actual vowel always 
returns, which however, if it be a, is again turned into o in 
the 1st pers. by means of the ending um. Of all these points 
examples are also found in the irregular verbs of the simpler 
division see 248. 

257. As examples of all these regular classes in the 
more artificial division, brenna to burn, gefa to give, gripa 
to gripe, seize, lata to let, leave, frjosa to freeze, fara to fare, 
journey may serve. 





1st Class. 


2nd Class. 


3rd Class. 


Indicative. 




Active. 




Pres. Sing. 


1. brenn 


gef 


grip 




2. brennr 


gefr 


gripr 




3. brennr 


gefr 


gripr 


Plur. 


1. brennum 


gefum 


gripum 




2. brenniS 


gefiS 


gn'piS 




3. brenna 


gefa 


gripa 


Imperf. Sing. 


1. brann 


gaf 


greip 




2. brannt 


gaft 


greipt 




3. brann 


gaf 


greip 


Plur. 


1. brunnum 


gafum 


gripum 




2. brunnu5 


gafuS 


gripuS 




3. brunnu 


gafu 


gripu 


Conjunctive. 








Pres. Sing. 


1. brenni 


gefi 


gripi 




2. brennir 


gefir 


gripir 




3. brenni 


gefi 


gripi 


Plur. 


1. brennum 


gefum 


gripum 




2. brennift 


gefiS 


gripiS 




3. brenni 


gefi 


gripi 


Imperf. Sing 


1. brynni 


gaefi 


gripi 




2. brynni r 


gaeiir 


gripir 




3. brynni 


gaefi 


gripi 



122 



VERS. 



Plur. 


1. brynnum 


gaefum* 


gripum 




2. brynnuS 


gaefuS 


gripuS 




3. brynnu 


ga3fu 


gripu 


Imperat. 


2. brenn-du 


gef-5u 


grip-tu 


Infin. 


brenna 


gefa 


gripa 


Part. pres. 


brennandi 


gefandi 


gripandi 


Sup. act. 


brunnit 


gefit 


gripit 


Sup. Pass. 


wanting 


gefizt 


gripizt 




4tn Class. 


5tu Class. 


6th Class. 


Indicat. 




Active. 




Pres. Sing. 


1. Iset 


fitfa 


fer 




2. lsetr 


ftys-t 


fer-S 




3. lsetr 


frfs 


fer 


Plur. 


1. latum 


frjosum 


forum 




2. latiS 


frjosiS 


fariS 




3. lata 


frjosa 


fara 


Imperf. Sing. 


1. let 


fraus 


for 




2. lezt 


fraust 


fort 




3. let 


fraus 


for 


Plur. 


1. letum 


frusum 


forum 




2. letuS 


frusuS 


foruS 




3. letu 


frusu 


foru 


Conjunctive. 








Pres. Sing. 


1. lati 


frjosi 


fari 




2. latir 


frjosir 


farir 




3. lati 


frjosi 


fari 


Plur. 


1. latum 


frjosum 


forum 




2. latiS 


frjosiS 


fariS 




3. lati 


frjosi 


fari 


Imperf. Sing. 


1. leti 


frysi 


faeri 




2. letir 


frysir 


faerir 




3. leti 


frysi 


faari 


Plur, 


i. letum 


frysum 


faerum 




2. Ielu5 


frysuft 


faeruS 




3. letu 


frysu 


faeru 



MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 



123 



Imperat. 


lat-tu 


frjos-tu 


far-Cu 


Infin. 


lata 


frjosa 


fara 


Part pres. 


latandi 


fjdsandi 


farandi 


Sup. act. 


latit 


frosit 


farit 


Sup. Pas. 


latizt 


{wanting) 


farizt. 



The passive is formed here, as in the simpler division, 
from the active by adding st, before which r falls away, but 
dj and /, which also fall away, are replaced by z, for s, e. g. 
gripst throughout in the sing., gripumst, gripizt, gripast, in 
the pi.; laezt in the sing., latumst, latizt, latast in the pi. etc.; 
but many of these which are neut. take no pass., e. g. ek 
brenn, ek frys, etc. 



1« Class. 

258. This class has also in consequence of the cons, some 
small variations , which may be seen from the following ex- 
amples ; 



renna, 


renn, 


rann, 


runnum, 


rynni 


runnit 


to run 


vinna, 


vinn, 


vann, 


unnum, 


ynni. 


unnit, 


to win 


vinda, 


vind, 


vatt, 


undum, 


yndi, 


undit, 


to hoist \ wind 


hrinda, 


hrind, 


hratt, 


hrundum, 


hryndi, 


hrundit, 


to hurl down 


finna, 


firm, 


fann, 


fundum, 


fyndi, 


fundit, 


to find 


drecka^ 


dreck, 


drack, 


druckum, 


drycki, 


druckit 


to drink 


stinga, 


sting, 


stack, 


stungum, 


st^ngi, 


stungit, 


to pricks sting 


springa, spring, sprack, sprungum 


, spryngi 


, spriingit 


, to split 


skella, 


skell, 


skall, 


skullum, 


(skylli, 


skolit), 


to ring 


velta, 


velt, 


valt, 


ultum, 


yiti, 


oltit, 


to roll 


gjalda, 


geld, 


gait, 


guldum, 


gyidi, 


goldit, 


to pay 


skjalfa, 


skelf, 


skalf, 


skulfum, 


skylfi, 


skolfit, 


to shake 


svelgja 


? svelg, 


svalg, 


(sulgum) 


sy 1 ^ 


svolgit, 


to swill 


svella, 


svell, 


svall, 


sultum, 


sylti, 


sollit, 


to swell 


vella, 


veil, 


vail, 


ullum, 


yffi, 


ollit, 


to boil 


svelta, 


svelt, 


svalt, 


sultum, 


sylti, 


s oltit, 


to fast, starve 


|)verra, 


f)verr ? 


|)varr, 


(Jmrrum). 


fcyiri, 


f)orrit, 


to lessen 


verSa, 


ver$, 


var$, 


urftum, 


yr8i, 


ornit, 


to become 



124 



VERBS. 



snerta, (snert) snart, (snurtum snyrti) snortit, to touch 

hverfa, hverfj hvarf, hvurfum, hvyrfi, horfit, to diminish 

verpa, verp, varp, urpum, yrpi, orpit, to lay {eggs) 

bjarga, berg, barg, (burgum) byrgi borgit, to help 

bresta, brest, brast, brustum, brysti, brostit, to burst 

sleppa, slepp, slapp, sluppum, slyppi, sloppit, to slip away, 

let slip 

detta, dett, datt, duttum, dytti, dottit, to fall 

spretta, sprett, spratt, spruttum, sprytti, sprottit, to start up 

Those which have n next to the chief vowel take in the 
sup. u, the rest o. 

The rule that v falls away before o, u, and y, is some- 
times neglected, particularly if a cons, go before; but very 
few indeed are found actually irregular; valda to carry along, 
makes veld, vald, and in the sup. valdit; in the pi. imperf., 
and imperf. conjunct., I have never met with it; of snerta on- 
ly snerli is perhaps found in the pres., which Bjorn Haldorson 
gives, but it is besides the actual pres. of another verb, which 
makes snerti in the imperf., and is declined after the 2"J class 
of the 1st division. 









2nd 


Class. 






259. This class 


is not so 


numerous; farther examples are ; 


qvefta 


qveQ 


qvaS 


qvaftum 


qvaeSi 


qveSit 


to sing 


biSja 


bi8 


ba5 


baSum 


bseSi 


beSit 


to pray 


geta 


get 


gat 


gatum 


gseti 


getit 


to beget, talk of 


siija 


sit 


sat 


satum 


sseti 


setit 


to sit 


lesa 


les 


las 


lasum 


laesi 


lesit 


to read 


troSa 


treS 


tra5 


traSum 


traeSi 


troSit 


to tread 


koma 


kem 


qvam 


qvamum 


qvaemi 


komit 


to come 


sofa 


sef 


svaf 


svafum 


svaefi 


sofit 


to sleep 


drepa 


drep 


drap 


drapum 


drsepi 


drepit 


to slay 


reka 


rek 


rak 


rakum 


raeki 


rekit 


to drive • 



Some take a in the sing, of the imperf., or are irregular in 
other respects, these are in particular. 






MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 



125 



eta 


et 


at-um 


seti 


elit 


to eat 


vega 


veg 


vag-um 


vaegi 


vegit 


to kill 


Jiggja 


%g 


lag-um 


la3gi 


legit 


to lie 


f>iggja 


frggj 


f)ag-um 
|>a5i,Sum 


faegi 


f>egit 


to receive 


sja 


ser 


sa-um 


ssei 


se5 


to see. 



Instead of traS traSu , IroS tr65u , are now commonly said 
by the 6th class; and for qvam, qvamu, qvaemi; kom, komu, 
ka3mi. Those with the characteristic g usually lose it in pron. 
and writing, in the imperf. indie; thus we often found la-u, 
J)a-Uj va-u and in new writers vo, or by the 6t& class 
vo-u, vog-u. 

260. To this class belongs also the auxiliary verb vera 
to be which is irregular in the pres.; it is thus inflected. 





Indie. 


Conjunc. 


Imperat. 


Pres. Sing. 


ek em (er) 


se 


veri 




|>u ert 


ser (ser*S) 


ver-tu (verir) 




hann er 


se 


veri 


Plur. 


ver erum 


seum 


verum 




|>er eruo" 


seu5 


verio* 




|>eir eru 


seu 


vera 


Imperf. Sing. 


ek var 


vaeri 


Infinitive. 




fm vart 


vasrir 


Pres. vera 




hann var 


vseri 


Pret. ha fa verit 




ver vorum 


vserum 


Part. 




|>er voru5 


vseru5 


verandi 




|>eir voru 


vaaru 


verit. 



The pres, conj, is taken from another imperfect verb, and 
the pres. imperat. seems originally to have been the conj. of 
vera; for vorum etc., vorum is also used, old authors write 
varum. 

261. Those which have changeable characteristics form 
the supine like the first class, e. g. 



126 



VERBS. 



nema 


nem 


( nam 
( numdi 


nam-um 
or naemdi 


naemi 


numit 
numda 


to learn 
to deprive 


skera 


sker 


skar 


skarum 


skaeri 


skorit 


to shear, cut 


bera 


ber 


bar 


barum 


baeri 


borit 


to bear 


stela 


stel 


stal 


stalum 


StCeli 


stolit 


to steal 


fela 


fel 


j fal 
I fol 


falum 
folum 


faeli 


falit 

folgit. 


to hide arvat 








3'<< Class. 







262. This class is very regular and simple, it has in all 
pres t, and in all pret. i, except in the sing, imperf. indie, 
where it takes ei; farther examples are; 



rib'a 


ri5 


reio 7 


riSum 


riSi 


ri<5it 


to ride 


qviSa 


qviS 


qveiS 


qviSum 


qviSi 


qviSit 


to fear 


h'ta 


lit 


leit 


litum 


liti 


litit 


to look 


bita 


bit 


beit 


bitum 


biti 


bitit 


to bite 


drifa 


drif 


dreif 


drifum 


drifi 


drifit 


to drift 


Jjrifa 


|)rif 


Jreif 


f)rifum 


J)rin 


fcrifit 


to tend, snatch, 


siga 


sig 


seig 


sigum 


sigi 


sigit 


to sink 


stiga 


stig 


steig 


stigum 


utigi 


stigit 


to climb, rise 


vikja 


vik 


veik 


vikum 


viki 


vikit 


to yield 


svikja 


svik 


sveik 


svikum 


sviki 


svikit 


to cheat 


skin a 


skin 


skein 


skinum 


skini 


skinit 


to shine 


risa 


ris 


reis 


risum 


risi 


risit 


to rise up. 



In old writers rita to write, and rista to carve {runes) go 
with this class , but new writers use rita and inflect, it after 
the 1st class of the simpler division; and rista after the 2«d class 
of the same; qviddi also is found for qvei5. 



4<a Class. 

263. To this class comparatively few verbs belong, the 
most important are the following; 



grata graet 
rafta raeS 
biota blaet 



gret-um 

re5-um 

blet-um 



greti 

reSi 

bleti 



gratit to weep 

raSit to advise 

blotit to offer, worship 



MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 



127 



blasa blaes 

falla fell 

halda held 

leika leik 



bles-um 

fell-um 

helt heldum 

lek-um 



blesi 
felli 
heldi 
leki 



blasit 
fallit 
haldit 
leikit 



to blow 
to fall 
to hold 
to play. 



In addition all those in iga of the 3rd class belong to this 
class also ; we may thus also say. 
stiga stig ste-um ste-i stigit to rise 

hniga hnig hne-um hne-i hnigit to fall, stoop. 

These are irregular; 
ganga geing geek geingum 



hanga 

fa 

heita 



hangi 
fa3 ~ 
heiti 



heck 
feck 
het 



heingum 
feingum 
hetum 



gemgi 
heingi 
feingi 



geingit 
hangit 
feingit 



heti heitit 



to go 
to hang 
to get , take 
to he called. 



Biota now commonly goes with the 1st class of the sim- 
pler division; ganga makes in the imperat. gack- (tu). It is 



indifferent whether we write geck 5 geingum 
geingum without the accent. (81.). 



etc., or geek 









bth 


Class. 






264. This class is 


> like the 4th very 


regular and numerous; 


sjofta 


sp 


sau<5 


su5um 


sy5i 


so5it 


to seeth 


bjdSa 


bf$ 


bauS 


butSum 


bySi 


boSit 


to bid 


njota 


"ft 


naut 


nutum 


nyti 


notit 


to enjoy 


brjota 


bvft 


braut 


brutum 


bryti 


brotit 


to break 


Ijosta 


\fst 


laust 


lustum 


lysti 


lostit 


to strike 


s^ngja 


s^ng 


saung 


sungum 


s^ngi 


sungit 


to sing 


rjufa 


r^f 


rauf 


rufum 


ryfi 


rofit 


to rive 


kljufa 


ktyf 


klauf 


klufum 


klyfi 


klofit 


to cleave 


drjup 


dr^p 


draup 


drupum 


drypi 


dropit 


to drop, drip 


krjupa 


kr^p 


kraup 


krupum 


krypi 


kropit 


to creep 


fljuga 


fife 


flaug 


ilugum 


flygi 


flogit 


to fly 


sjiiga 


s^g 


saug 


sugum 


sygi 


sogit 


to suck 


rjuka 


r^k 


rauk 


rukum 


ryki 


rokit 


to reek 


Ijiika ) 
luka j 


tyk 


lauk 


lukum 


lyki 


lokit 


to lock, shut 
to pay 


luta 


tft 


laut 


lutum 


lyti 


lotit 


to bend. 



128 



VERBS. 



Some have a simple o in tie pres. . but are otherwise 
quite regular, e. g. 

sockva sock sock suckum syckvi sockit to sink 
stockva stock stock stuckum styckvi stockit to leap 



6<* Class. 
265. This also contains not a few verbs , though it is 



less regular than the foregoing. 



vafta 


ve$ 


68-um 


(aeCi) 


vaSit 


to wade 


hlaSa 


hle5 


hloS-um 


hlaeSi 


hlaffit 


to lade 


skafa 


skef 


skof-um 


(skaefi) 


skafit 


to scrape 


ala 


el 


61-um 


reli 


alit 


to feed, nourish 






( hof-um 


(haefi) 


hafit | 




hefja 


hef 


1 hafSi 
( stir-urn 


hefft 
saeri ) 


haf »a j 


to heave, lift, 


sverja 


sver 


( svarfti 


i 
sverSi ) 


svarit 


to swear 


vefa 


vef 


6f-um 


(«fi) 


ofit 


to weave 


draga 


'dreg 


drog-um 


draegi 


dregit 


to draw 


taka 


tek 


tok-um 


taeki 


tekit 


to take 


aka 


ek 


tik-um 


(aeki) 


ekit 


to drive 


sla 


slae 


sltig-um 


slsegi 


slegit 


to strike 


fla 


flae 


flog-um 


(flaegi) 


flegit 


to flay 


hlaea 


hlae 


hlog-um 


hlaegi 


hlegit 


to laugh. 


The following are irregular. 










( do-um 


dsei 


dait ) 




deyja 


dey 


\ deySi 


deyfti 


dautt j 


to die 


standa 


stend 


stoSum 


staeSi 


staSit j 
stadt 1 


to stand. 



Dautt and stadt are properly adj., in the masc, dau5r, 
staddr, like the Swed. words dod, stadd. The imperat. of 
standa is stattu; some take the vowel u in the pi. imperf. and 
form from this the imperf. conj. by changing u into y; these 
always take in the sup. the same vowel as in the infin., they 
are the following: 



MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 



129 



vaxa 


vex 


6x 


uxum 


yxi vaxit to wax, grow 


auka 


eyk 


jok 


jukum 


juki aukit to increase 


ausa 


eys 


jos 


jusum 


jysi ausit to sprinkle 


hlaupa 


hleyp 


hljop 


hlupum 


hlypi hlaupit to run, urge 


Ma 


1* 


bjo 


bjuggum 


(bjyggi ) 

jbyggi bult t0 dweU 


hoggva 


hogg 


hjo 


hjuggum 


hjyggi hoggvit to hew. 



The first four may also form a regular pi. of the imperf. 
from the sing, oxum, jokum, josum, hljopum, but the imperf. 
conj. has only the single form in y. 

266. The cause of the many vowel changes which are 
found in the 2nd main Division is doubtless , as is the case 
also to a certain extent in Greek and Latin , that one and 
the same verb had different forms in different dialects , of 
which one has been kept in some tenses, the other in others; 
this is proved partly from the old kindred tongues, where 
similar forms are sometimes found complete, partly from the 
analogy of other words ; e. g. the Icel. finna seems to have 
besides another form viz, finda, whence we have an imperf. 
pi. fundum, imperf., conj. fyndi, supine fundit, and this form 
is actually found complete and regular in the Angl. Sax. fin- 
dan, finde, fand, fundum, fande, gefunden. The word sla seems 
also to have had another form with g (slaga) from which all 
the pret. are formed, slog-u, slaegi , slegit; this can also be 
concluded from a composition with, draga, dreg, drog-u, draagi, 
dregit, as also from the Germ, schlagen, schldgt , schlug, 
schluge, geschlagen. 

In like manner the Icel. imperf. seri sowed, seems to be- 
long to the Latin pres. sero (serere), and again the Latin imperf. 
sevi and part, satus to the Icel. pres. see (sa or s6a), whence 
also the Icel. part. sa5r (saftur); just as the Latin crevi seems 
to be the pret. of the Icel. pres grae, and auxi, auctum, from 
Icel. at aukan etc. Derivative Subst. also sometimes confirm 
this dualism of form, e. g. slattr a blow (comp. Germ schlacht) 
for slagtr, from the form slaga; as drattr for dragtr, from 
draga, d<5ttir for dogtir etc., together with the word slag 

9 



130 VERBS. 

Germ, scklag, which is formed from the old infin. just as fall 
from falla, stand from stand a, kaup from kaupa, etc. 

Yet in the assuming of such forms care must be taken 
not to go too far, and confound the changes which euphony 
requires, with these forms; e. g. from batt (imperf. of binda) 
we must not assume any verb batta, just as little as from 
feck any fecka, or of gack, statt (imperat), gacka, statta, or 
the like, for it is the common working of euphony to change 
ngk into ck and ndt into tt, as springa sprack, etc. Just as 
in Greek for example we must not assume any miQo\xai for 
the future n&iaopat (of rca'tf/Q, because it it the usual process 
of euphony to put siq for evrq, or evQ$, e. g. rvQQeiq (for 
tvqQsvt^) etc., and besides there is the form nhQco, subst. 
itivdoq, pret. nsitdvSa. It is also probable that the vowel in the 
Old Norse tongue as in other languages was always changed 
in certain verbs in a certain way; and it is only therefore in 
the irregular verbs that such forms can be assumed with any 
show of truth. But to carry this inquiry farther lies beyond 
the province of Grammar, which should only describe the forms 
and inflections actually existing in the language. 

The formation of lenses. 

267. The inflection of the Icelandic verbs is very simple, 
and like the old Swed. and Dansk; the formation also is 
simple and irregular. The 2«d Division has always a mono- 
syll. pros, which ends in the characteristic letter itself, and 
changes the vowel in the usual way; the same would perhaps 
be also the case with the pres. of the 3^ class of the 1st Di- 
vision, which is also monosyll., but it has always the vowels 
e, or g, which do not admit of any farther change. 

The 3rd pers. pi. of the pres. is always the same as the 
infin., and in general the pi. of the pres. has the same charac- 
ter, as the infin., as well in regard to the vowel in the chief 
syll. as to the insertion of j and v, (247.) 

268. All tenses in the conj. are formed from the corres- 
ponding ones in the indie, only with the change of ending, and 



FORMATION OF TENSES. 131 

in the imperf. with change of vowel, in those cases where the 
vowel of the indie, was changed, but still with a power of 
changing it again. 

Hence it follows that the pres. conj. has always the same 
vowel and same character with regard to j and v as the 
infin. because the pi. pres. indie, has also these. Farther that 
the imperf. conj. in the 1st and 2nd classes of the 1st Division 
is always the same as the imperf. indie., because these classes 
have no vowel change in the indie, and can take none in the 
conj. except in some few irregular verbs , and in these also 
the endings are alike; but in all other verbs the imperf. conj. 
is different from the imperf. indie, because either the vowel 
or the endings, or both, are unlike. The vowel changes by 
which the imperf. conj. is formed from the pi. imperf. indie, 
are always the common ones of o into e 9 ,'u, into y 7 u^ into y, 
a and 6 into ce. 

269. The past part, is always formed in the l s t Division 
from the imperf. by change of ending ; t being placed instead 
of i in the neut. or sup. , and r in the masc. ; the fern, takes 
no new ending but distinguishes itself by vowel change if the 
word contains a. Yet in this case heed must be paid to all 
that has been remarked 185. and 186., particularly that d al- 
ways falls away before /, but is kept before other cons. The 
part, of monosyll. verbs on the other hand differ from the 
monosyll. adj. mentioned in 188., viz they receive no tt in 
the neut., but on the contrary form the neut. (i. e. sup.) in the 
same way as the fern, simply by throwing away i. The third 
class has commonly the double part. (194); the shorter form 
is always formed from the imperf. indie, in the same way as 
those of the 2nd class; the longer not only throws away the 
ending (i), but also the characteristics of the imperf. 5, d, or 
t, and places in their stead ify inn^ in; this is at bottom just 
the same as the shorter form, or more properly, both are only 
separate modes of pronouncing the original form it (for idf), 
i§r, iS, which in the one case has been contracted 9 so that 
the vowel has fallen away* while in the other 3 has been 
changed into n (91.) after a weak vowel; which is very 



132 



VERBS. 



common in the Old Norse. We can thus understand how both 
these forms can be used reciprocally to supply one another as 
euphony requires, and also see how these part, in it, inn, in, 
correspond with the Latin in itum, itus, ita, e. g. 
tamit domitum 

tamior (5ur) domitus 

tamiS domita. 

Of these forms the Icel. sup. always chooses that in it 
when it occurs, and thus the verbs which have monosyll. 
sup. want entirely the longer form. 

In the second main Division the part is almost always 
formed in it, inn in, (for ffit, iftr, i§) ; here too the contracted 
form is sometimes found , when it is commonly used as 'an 
independant adj. Monosyll. part of monosyll. verbs take, like 
those of the 1st Division, no t in the neut. (or sup.). For the 
rest these part, are not always formed from the imperf. pi., 
which only holds good of the 1^, 3*d, and 5tn classes; in the 
2nd ? 4th ? and 6t& they come from the infin. , though sometimes 
with change of vowel, which will be best seen from the ex- 
amples given 258 — 265. Only sup. pass, are formed from poly- 
syll. sup., never new complete part., but from the monosyll. actual 
pass. part, or reciprocals in all genders are sometimes formed; 
all that is here said may be seen from the following examples. 



From kallaSi comes 


kallat 


kallaor 


kolluS 


— brendi — 


brent 


brendr 


brend 


— taldi — 


talit 


taliSr 


taliS 


which again becomes either 


talit 


talinn 


talin 


or 


tali 


taldr 


told 


from riiSi plucked of wool 


ru8 


ru5r 


ruS 


or 


riiit 


ruinn 


ruin 


— qvaddi 


qvadt 


qvaddr 


qvodd 


— spurSi 


spurt 


spurSr 


spurS 


— maSi — 


maS 


maSr 


ma5 


lcSi — 


leS 


le5r 


le5 


— fundu — 


fundit 


fundinn 


fundin 


— slitu ^- 


slitit 


slitinn 


slitin 


— klufu — 


klofit 


klofinn 


klofin 



PERSONAL ENDINGS. 



133 



But from lesa — 


lesit 


lesinn 


lesin 


— halda — 


haldit 


haldinn 


haldin 


— ala — 


alit 


alinn 


alin 


or — 


(alt 


aldr 


old) 


sja pres ser 


sed 


seor 


seS 


or 


sed" 


sen 


sen 


from amint comes 


amin^t 


aminztr 


aminzt 


— lagt — 


lagzt 


lagztr 


logzt 


— sett — 


sezt 


seztr 


sezt 


But from el skat only 


elskazt 






— barit — 


barizt 






— spunnit — 


spunnizt 






— gent — 


gefizt 







etc. There are, generally speaking, very few verbs which 
can form complete part, pass, from their monosyll. sup., and 
these seem to belong properly to the new tongue. From sup. 
in st, sup. pass, are not readily formed, because in such a 
case they must end in szt, or stst, which it is nearly impossible 
to pronounce, yet they may be used, e. g. uppleyszt, etc. 
Thoroughly neut. verbs can take no sup. pass, at all, e. g. 
from sofit sofizt can not be formed y any more than verizt 
from verit. 

270. The formation of the pass, is in other respects so 
simple and regular that is does not need farther description: 
st is added in all cases, but before this r, t, d, and 5, fall 
away, which last however is supplied by z for 5. So also 
m is turned into n before st, but this is not general, at least 
not in old writers (152). 



Of the personal endings. 

271. In the endings of the verbs several changes have 
taken place at various times, thus the 1st pers. often ends in 
old writers in a, when the 2nd ends in ir; accordingly (a) in all 
pres. conj. as ek vitja, vilja, dsema, muna, hljota, bera, etc.; (b) 
in all imperf. indie, of the 2nd Division, e. g. ek elska5a, s^nda 
vilda, hugfta. etc.; (c) in all imperf. conj, both of the simpler 



134 



VERBS. 



and more artificial Division; e. g. ek herjaSa, brenSa, heffia. 
maeta, vaera, laega, feinga, etc. 

272. The first pers. pi. of the pres. and imperf. conj. ends 
in old writers in im, e. g. kallim, leitim, hafim, eigim, takim 
vexim, nefndim, vaerim, laekim, and the like. 

273. The 3rd pers. pi. of the imperf. conj., like the 3rd 
pers. pi. pres., often ends in i (for u), e. g. J>eir elskaSi, saetti, 
rynni, taeki; new writers use tsekjo, feingju, etc. 

274. The endings urn, u$, and i§ in the pi. throw away 
the last cons., when the pron. comes immediately after, e. g. 

ver ? viS skulum mi skulu ver , vi5 

{>er , J>i5 munuS nu munu J)er , |>i8 

|>er , J)i5 takiS taki $er , £iS! 

This is also sometimes found even when the pron. is left 
out, e. g. fai mer, give me {that). But this distinction is often 
neglected by new writers. 

275. The pron. are sometimes compounded with the verbs, 
e. g. vitjag, (or viljak, vitjac) for vitja ek, (eg); this happens 
in particular with the 2»d pers. pron. jm, which is compounded 
with all imperat. so that the accent falls away, e. g. elska'Su, 
sjaSu see thou, gacktu go thou, etc., according to the character 
of the foregoing letter. This pron. is also compounded with 
most monosyll. pres., yet so that the vowel falls away entire- 
ly, and 8, d, or t, only is kept, when the pron. stands before, 
e. g. |)u lest thou reddest, |>u kannt thou canst, vilt willt, serS 
seest etc.; but should the pron. stand after the verb, e. g. in 
questions, the vowel remains lestu, kanntu, villtu, serSu, seest 
thou? Some authors write the imperat. separately gack {du, 
sja J)u, etc., but since we cannot write kann |>u , vil Jm, nor 
in common speech say gack Jni, but by old custom gacktu, 
this change of orthography seems needless and wrong. 

276. The imperat. has properly only the 2nd pers. sing., 
all the other pers. are supplied by the pres. conj., and take 
in the 2»d pers. pi. almost an optative signification. 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 135 

277. The imperf. of the second Division, like the mono- 
syll. pres., add t in the 2nd pers. with a vowel cchange in the 
1st (252.), in which case the same change takes place which 
happens to t in the neut. of adj., viz that it is doubled after 
a diphthong, and with d before it assimilated to tt, e. g. from 
liggja, la, latt, from standa stoS, stdtt; but after /, st, is added, 
and in stead of tst, zt, is written, e. g. liita imperf. laut, 2 nd 
pers, lauzt, different from laust imperf. of ljosta to smite, or 
the neut. of the adj. laus loose. This t comes from the 2nd 
pers. jm, and when this pron. should come immediately after u 
only is added (without accent) to the ending t, e.g. lattu, stottu, 
lauztu, for latt j>u, or la jm, etc.; at the present time st, is 
commonly put in all imperf., instead of t, thus brannst, gafst, 
etc. The old writers often added k, e. g. to the first pers. 
taken from the 1st pers. pron. ek (ec, eg), so that the imperf. 
also in the sing, distinguishes all three pers. by their ending, 
e. g. letk, lezt, let; fork, fort, for. This k is used also in the 
first main Division, e. g. kallaftak, brendak, taldak, as also in 
all imperf. conj. letak, faerak; and in all pres. when the sound 
allows it, e. g. kallak, hefik, telk, laetk, ferk, etc. 



Auxiliary Verbs. 

278. Two tenses only can be expressed by actual inflex- 
ion, all other relations therefore must be periphrased by means 
of auxiliary verbs, which are consequently very numerous : mun 
and skal, form the fut.; the former contains a kind of predic- 
tion how any thing will turn out , and may be rendered in 
English by will, it is likely, 1 dare say, e. g. vi5 vorum faeddir 
a einni nott, ok mun skamt verfta milli dau5a ockars. We 
were born in one night, and it will not be long between our 
deaths, it is not likely we shall die far apart.; Nu skal ek 
senda J)eim sending. Now shall I send them a (little) keepsake. 
After both these words the auxil. verb vera is commonly left 
out, g. g. f>at mun retlara^to will be better, it is likely to 
be better; fmri skulu ok talin nofn f)eirra. Tfierein shall their 
names also be rekoned (told). In this way especially are 
formed all fut, pass, with past part, instead of the infin., which 



13G VERBS. 

is explained by supposing an ellipse of vera. The word skal 
is besides often used, with infin. act., where the new tongues 
prefer to employ the fut. pass., which may be accounted for 
by an ellipse of maftr one, e. g. J)a skyldi brenna alia dauSa 
menn. Then should {one) burn all dead men, or then should 
all dead men be burned. 

279. Hafa and vera form the perf. and pluperf. ; the 
former is usual in nearly all active verbs, as in Swed.; vera 
is more common in the pass, and some few neut.; e.g. Olver 
sagSi J)a atburSi, er £ar hofou orSit. Oliver told the things 
which had happened there ; Egill haf5i geingit yfir skog 
nockurn. Egil had gone over (through) a certain wood. This 
verb is also often used with a past part, agreeing, like an 
adj., in gender and case with the object (instead of the un- 
changed supine), e. g. er |>eir hofSu feldan hofSingja liftsins. 
When they had felled the chiefs of the people. Hafa is also 
always used with sup. pass. Er j>eir hdfSu vifttalazt. When 
they had spoken together, pat hefir umbreyzt siSan, That has 
since been changed (or changed itself). Nu hefi ek komizt at 
raun um. Now have I come to the proof about (it); or now 
have I become convinced of it ; so also Nu em ek at raun 
kominn um f>at. Vera with at and the infin. of other verbs 
denotes a thoroughly definite time, e. g. ek em at skrifa, var 
at skrifa, I am just going to write, I was just going to write. 

280. A thoroughly past time, which we express by laying 
an emphasis on the auxiliary verb, is periphrased in Icel. by ek 
er buinn, ek var buinn, followed by the infin. with at, e. g. ek 
er buinn at skrifa / have (already) written, I have done my 
writing. 

281. Besides the above many other verbs are used to 
determine the sense of others (i. e. as auxiliaries), e. g. ek verS 
at, I gel leave to; ek htyt at, I must , (infin. hljota); ek a, 
|>u att at, I have to, thou hast to, or 7, thou must, (infin. eiga); 
ek astla at / mean to; or ek ma, I may, have power, (infin. 
mega ) ek tek at / take to , I begin ; ek fae with supine or 
part. I can, I have leave to, (infin. fa) etc. 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 



137 



282. The Pass, form is often in the old Norse a proper 
reciprocal, while on the other hand the condition of suffering 
is often (as in Germ.) expressed by a periphrase in which 
vera and verSa are used; thus; 





Indicative. 






Pres. 


ek 


em 


elskaftr 




Imp erf 


ek 


var 


elskaSr 




Perf. 


ek 


hefi 


verit 


elskad'r 


Pluperf. 


ek 


hafSi 


verit 


elskaftr 


Fut. 


ek 


mun 


(ver5a) 


elskaSr 


— 


ek 


skal 


(verSa ) 


elskaSr 




ek 


mun 


elskast 






ek 


skal 


elskast 






ek 


verS 


elskaftr. 





These fut. are used in connection with pres., but if the 
context be in the past time, then ek mundi, skyldi, var5, etc., 
are said. 



Other kinds of verbs. 

283. Those verbs are called impersonal which are used 
only in the 3rd pers. and are coupled with an indefinite subject; 
these again are of many kinds; (a) the subject is either alto- 
gether indef., when it is wont to be expressed by |>at it, e. g. 
|>at |>rumar it thunders, J>at dagar it dawns, j>at ber viS it 
(sometimes) happens); (b) or the verb becomes to a certain 
degree, as in Latin, personal by drawing the subject towards 
it as a dependent case, so that some require the subject to 
be in the ace, e. g. mik langtar, / long, mik |)yrstir / thirst, 
mik rekr / am driven {a wreck on the waves), mik uggir / 
fear, etc.; (c) others throw the subject into the Dat., e.g. mer 
ofb^Sr it is horrible to me, mer vill til, it happens to me, 
mer verSr a / provide for myself. Passive verbs in particular 
are thus used impersonally with the subject in the dat., when 
they contain the idea of chance; mer heyrist / hear, come to 
hear, mer skilst J understand, mer skjatlast or sk^zt / make 
a mistake, mer leiSist I am weary, it is wearisome to me, 



1 38 VERBS. 

etc. Some of these are also used with the indef. subject it 
{>at, or both with it and the dat. though in different construc- 
tions, e. g. |)at tekst varla. It will scarce be lucky, f)er tekst 
varla at, it will scarcely be lucky for thee — , J>at tokst 
honum |)d it turned out lucky, for him at last. 

284. Those are called reciprocals, the subject of which is also 
the object of the action, they take the object in all cases like 
other verbs, e. g. ek fyrirverS mik / am ashamed of myself 
ek for5a mer I take myself off hann skammast sin he is ash- 
amed of misself, etc. Those which require this object in the 
dat. are often expressed by the simple pass., and can then take 
another actual object near them in the ace, e. g. ek forSast 
fjendr mina / get me away from my foes. 

285. Deponents, or such as have only the pass, form, are 
not numerous in Icel. most of them go along with the first 
Division, e. g. ek andast 1 breathe my last, ek dirfirst 7" am 
daring; all these kinds of verbs arc for the rest inflected in 
the common way, after the Division and class to which they 
belong, so far as the nature of each will permit. 

286. Whether verbs are transitive (active) or intransitive 
(neuter) has not the least influence on their inflection, the only 
remark to be made is, that when a trans, is formed from an 
intrans. the latter commonly belongs to the more artificial, the 
former to the simpler Division, e. g. rjuka to reek, reikja to 
smoke, risa to rise up, reisa to raise up. 



139 



CHAPTER IX. 



Of the Particles. 



287. Under this denomination are commonly included those 
classes of words which are not inflected , viz adverbs , prepo- 
sitions, conjunctions, and interjections, but for the very reason 
that they are unchangeable, such words cannot be reckoned 
as belonging to the theory of inflection. To enumerate them 
is the part of a Lexicographer, while the description of their 
origin and structure belongs the theory of the formation of 
words. It only remains therefore in this place to speak of the 
comparison of adv., the only kind of inflection which these 
words allow. 

288. The adverbs commonly end in the comp. in ar, and 
in the superl. in ast, the former of these endings is entirely 
adverbial, for adj. end in the neut. comp. in ra , while the 
latter is common to adverbs and the neut. of adj. in the indef. 
form, e. g. 

vi5a viSar vmast widely 

hsegliga haegligar haegligast easily 

tilt tiSar tiSast closely 

opt optar optast often 

sjaldan sjaldnar sjaldnast seldom. 

Many irregular adj. (207.) are as adverbs regularly com- 
pared, e. g. 

norSast northerly 

austast easterly 
syftst (sunnast) southerly 

vestast westerly 

yzt (utarst) without 

innst within 

efst up 

neftst beneath 



norSr 


norSar 


austr 


austar 


suSr 


sunnar 


vestr 


vestar 


ut 


utar 


in 


innar 


uppi 


ofar 


niCri 


neftar 



140 PARTICLES. 

289. Some adv. have also a shorter comp. in r(ur) e. g. 
betr, skar, verr, meir, miSr (minnr), fyrr, heldr, naer, fjaer (firr). 
The superl. of all adv. are like the neut. superl. of indef. adj. 

290. Some have a double comp., sometimes with a differ- 
ence of meaning: fremr and framar from fram, superl. fremst and 
framast, si5r less and siSar latter, sizt least, si'Sast last, leingr 
longer, is used only of time like leingi , leingra (neut. of the 
adj.) on the other hand is said only of place; so also skemr 
(from skemt) shorter, only of time, skemra only of space. 

The word meir (meirr) is added to some comp. of adj. to 
give them further strength, e. g. naer meir more nearer, seinna 
meir more latterly, siSar meir farther more, etc. 



THIRD PART. 

The Formation of words. 



CHAPTER X. 

General View. 

291. The doctrine of the formation of words forms a very 
important part of Grammar; it is here properly speaking that 
we learn to discover the gender , inflection , and origin of 
words , as well as their affinity and fundamental meaning, in 
so far as these are not dependant on arbitrary custom , but 
based one some actual ground and rule in the language; and 
here also we are enabled to form an idea of the richness of 
the tongue and its internal completeness. The inflections can 
without difficulty be very exactly expressed by particles, e.g. 
all the 5 very complex declensions of the Latin are replaced 
by the two prep, a and de in French and Italian; all the 
personal endings of verbs , are replaced by three , or at any 
rate by six, monosyll. pron. in Dansk; the new tongues seem 
to have gained more in simpleness ease and clearness, than 
they have lost in terseness and freedom in inversions , and 
have thus a compensation for their loss; but want of deri- 
vative syll. and restraint in composition can be repaired in no 
other way than by the adoption of foreign words , which make 
the tongue uneven, irregular, and characterless; they are be- 
sides a heavy burden fer the understanding, because we have 
then to remember a number of separate words without any 



142 FORMATION OF WORDS. 

reciprocal connection, and which have no apparent ground for 
their meaning in the language itself; this forms a great hindrance 
to the instruction of the people in nations which speak a very 
mingled language, because the common people do not under- 
stand the language which the learned write, and are thus exclu- 
ded from literature; e.g. each and every Greek comprehended 
instantly without difficulty the words darqoloyioi, xofiifnfs (aVr^) 
Qikococpia, Qvaixy, just as every Icelandic peasant at once under- 
stands the words stjornufrseSi, halastjarna, heimspeki, natturu- 
fraeSi, while the words astronomic hornet, filosofi, fysik, contain 
to a Swedish ear no ground at all for their meaning; they 
are therefore comprehended by no Swede, who has not learned 
and fixed each of them separately in his memory, besides the 
other simple words stjerna, star, Icira, lore, vishet, doctrine, 
wisdom, etc., which must also be remembered. 

The rules for the formation of words therefore contain 
one main Division of the language , wholly independant in it- 
self, and opposed to the theory of inflection; the latter teaches 
how old words are changed, the former how new ones are 
framed, or in other words, how [the greater portion of the 
tongue, viz, all which is the result of the peculiar character 
and cultivation of a nation, has arisen; and consequently how 
the poets and philosophers of later times should procceed, if 
they aim at imparting new ideas to the people, because a 
similarity in formation with that which is already known is 
the only way by which a new word can become intelligible. 
It is accordingly very inconvenient, nay perhaps wrong, only 
to bring forward , as has been hitherto the custom , a few 
scattered incidental remarks on this head in the first part of 
treatises on Grammar, and we will here consider this interesting 
side of the Old Norse by itself and for its own sake. 

292. The formation of words happens in two ways, by 
Derivation or Composition, in the former case the word is 
formed by means of change of vowel, alteration of the ending, 
or the addition of one or more syll. which in themselves have 
no meaning; in the latter on the other hand by coupling to- 
gether two are more separate words in one new one, which 



DERIVATION. 143 

takes a single chief tone. In both these respects there is 
much likeness between the Iceland, and the Swed. and Germ. 
Yet it often happens that what is denoted in one tongue by 
compos, is expressed in another by deriv. just as one of them 
sometimes uses inflection, where another has deriv. or compos. 



CHAPTER XI. 

Derivation. 

293. The purpose of Derivation is either to alter the 
meaning of a word, make it better or worse, etc.; which takes 
place especially by some addition to the first syll.; or to 
change to class of a word, i. e. make a verb out a subst. etc., 
this happens partly by a change of vowel within, but chiefly 
by change in or addition to the final syll., because inflection 
acts mainly at the close of a word, and the ending must there- 
fore be suited to that class of words, the inflections of which 
will be taken by the word in its new shape. These deriv- 
ations accordingly divide themselves into several kinds after 
the separate classes of words, into which they serve to trans- 
fer words. 

Prefixes. 

Some of these give the word a negative, deteriorative, 
or contradictory meaning: 

294. O- has, (a) a negative meaning, especially before 
adj., e. g. okunnr unknown , okunnugr unknowing ', ignorant, 
omissandi indispensable, oboSinn unbidden, olses which cannot 
read, osjaldan often, not seldom, ovida not wide spread; (b) 
a deteriorative or contradictory meaning, chiefly before subst. 
and verbs , e. g. ,6hof insatiability , omak uneasiness, ofriSr 
war, oraS ill counsell, obsenir cursings, ogaefa ill lush, ofrelsi 
villenage , thraldom, omaka to trouble, vex, onyla, to make 
useless. 



144 FORMATION OF WORDS. 

295. Mis- has partly (a) like 6 a negative meaning, mis- 
attr or dsattr discordant , but more often that of deterioration. 
e. g. ojafn uneven, misjafn unlike, bad, misfoknast, to mislike, 
displease, misfyrma to mishandle. But this syll. has besides 
two peculiar meanings: (b) a difference, unlikeness, e. g. 
misstor of different size, mislangir of unlike length, mislitr 
pied; he is said to have mislagSar hendr, who is at one time 
too strict, at another too lenient, misdauSi is the term for two 
persons death when the one overlives the other; (c) a mistake 
or fault, c. g. misgaungur wrong-ways, bypaths, mismseli slip 
of the tongue, misminni slip of the memory, misgrip mistake, 
misgjora or misbrjota to misbehave, misbruka to misuse. 

296. Van- brings along with it, (a) partly the idea of 
want, e. g. vanfser, weak, wanting strength, growth, van- 
heilsa, weakliness , vanefni impotence, poverty ; mik van- 
hagar urn, / want, it fails me, vantro want of faith, and also 
wrong belief; (b) partly the idea of something wrong silly, 
sorry, e. g. vanfylgi sorry support, vanga carelessness , van- 
helga to profane, vanviroa to defane. 

297. Var- is an old derivative syll. of the same meaning 
as the foregoing, e. g. vargefin badly wedded, who has made 
a misalliance, varmenni coward, varliga, contr, varla, scarcely, 

298. Tor- denotes a difficulty, e. g. tornsemr slow of wit, 
torfaeri difficulty, torkenna to make hard to know, tortyna to 
destroy, torsottr hard to attack, torfeinginn hard to hold. 

299. For is properly an old proposition from which the 
more recent fyrir for, fore, has been formed; it gives a word 
( a ) the same meaning as this prep., e. g. forfaoir forefather, 
fornioSir foremother, mother of a race, forspar soothsaying, 
second sight, formali foreword, forsjall foresighted , forseti 
president, forraS command, orvindis before the wind, for- 
streymis, before the stream, with the stream, fortolur, persua- 
sions , (b) the idea of something unlucky or unpleasant, old 
Engl, for in forlorn etc.; e. g. fordaema to condemn, forbaenir 
curses, forsending a perilous undertaking , (laid on any one 
with the view of his perishing in it) forbjoda to forbid, also 



DERIVATION. 145 

to lay under a ban; (c) it is also often added to verbs and 
subst. formed from them without denoting any clear modifi- 
cation of meaning, e. g. foreySa to lay waste , foreySsla lay- 
ing waste, formerkja to perceive , formyrkva to make dark, 
formyrkvan darkening darkness; yet this is not used so often 
as the redundant for in Swed., and for in Dansk, e. g. fbr- 
bka, is in lcel simply auka to increase, forstora, stsecka to 
make greater, forkorta, stytta to shorten, forldnga, leingja to 
lenghthen, etc.; in the new tongue however such deriv. are 
rather more common than in old writers , e. g. forbetra to better, 
fortelja to foretell, relate. 

300. Or- (or er-) comes also from a preposition, viz ur, 
in old writers often or (or), and denotes (a) a separation, e. g. 
orvaenta to despair, erlendis abroad, ormagna out of strength 
weak, orvita out of ones mind, orvasa imbecile, (said of those 
who cannot stir for age); (b) an extreme or very highdegiee, 
e. g. orsluttr very short, orlitill very little, ormjor very thin, 6r- 
fatsekr very poor, etc. But it is especially used with adj., 
which denote a want, or negative property. 

Other derivative syll. express an extension or limitation 
in time, space, or degree. 

301. Al- comes from the adj. allr all , and denotes the 
highest possible, entirely unlimited, degree, e. g. alvitnr all- 
knowing, almattugr almighty, algjor perfect, alheill quite hale, 
almennr common , public, almenningr, the common people , the 
public. 

All- of the same origin, but of quite different meaning; it 
expresses very nearly the Engl, right or very, e. g. allgoSr 
right good, allvitur right clever, allvida right often, close, all- 
mikill right much, very much. 

302. Of- {too much), e. g. of at gluttony, ofdryckja drun- 
kenness, ofnautn both these vices at once, ofriki tyranny, of- 
mikill too great, ofgamall too old, ofsnemma too soon, of- 
seint too late, ofsaekja to persecute, 

10 



146 FORMATION OF WORDS. 

Ofr- denotes a very high degree, but is more often used 
with adj. of negative meaning, e.g. ofrlitill, ofrungr, very little, 
young, etc., which are also, and perhaps more correctly ac- 
cording to the pronunciation, written, ofr litill, etc., in two 
words; but in subst. and verbs, e. g. ofrefli overmight , of 
selja to hand over, the two are actually joined together in 
one word. 

Afar- has the same meaning and use, e. g. afarreiftr very 
wrath, afaryrSi big words, threats, afarkostir illtreatment. 
Hence the Germ. Aber in Aberglaube, etc. 

303. Fjol- answers to the Germ, viel, Angl. Sax. feala, 
many, from it are formed the lcel. comp. and superl. fleira, 
flest, but the pos. never occurs except as a deriv. syll., e. g. 
fjolmennr populous, full of men, fjolbygSr thickly inhabited, 
fjolmenni throng of men, fjolyrSa to prose, fjolkunnugr much 
hnowing, skilled in spells, fjolk^ngi sorcery. 

The opposite to this is expressed by far (paucus, few) 
in compos., e. g. famennr having few men, fakunnatta ignor- 
ance, boorishness, etc. 

Besides the above the lcel. have a number of strengthen- 
ing particles and adverbs, the most important are: geysi 
(hagligr) hugely {clever), (liter, fiercely clever,) furSu (ilia) 
wondrous {ill); bisna (vel) monstrous {well); aeSi leingi a 
weary time; daindis vaent bravely well; which are each in 
themselves independant words j da-litill very Itttle , sai-kaldr 
biting cold, span-n^r brand-new, spick and span, are properly 
compounds of datt brave, sart grievous, spann a chip, shaving. 

304. Si- {unceasing, unbroken), e. g. sifella an unbroken 
row, sifeldr continuous, sifeldliga continuously, sif)yrstr alway 
thirsty, siglansandi ev er gleaming , sisofandi eversleeping. Si 
is also sometimes found as an independant adv., e. g. in the 
expression, si ok ae for ever and ever. 

305. Sjald- seldom, e. g. sjaldse<5r rare, seldomseen, sjald- 
feinginn scarce to get, sjaldgaefr seldom given. 



DERIVATION. 147 

306. Gagn- {through), expresses a very high degree; e.g. 
gagnsaer plain, which can be seen through, gagnlaerSr throughly 
learned, gagnfordjarfaSr thoroughly spoilt, like the Swed. 
genomgod, etc. 

Some Prefixes denote a relation in the comparison of 
several objects. 

307. Sam- (together) e. g. samfeSra children of the same 
father, sammaeSra children of the same mother, samborinn, 
born of the same father and mother, samnefnari namers together, 
samsinna to agree together, samheingi connection, sampycki 
agreement, samfagna to rejoice together, sampinast to be a 
fellow sufferer, samborgari fellow burgher, sambjoSa to be of 
one mind with, samdsegris on the same day, samstundis at the 
same hour. 

The opposite to this is denoted by sundr (sunder), and 
by sir (one's self) in compos, e. g. sundrmaeoYi having another 
mother (in Hamdismal)^ sundrborinn born asunder, of different 
stock, sundr{>ycki disagreement, strife. Ser on the other hand 
is used most often in a bad sense , e. g. servitr selfwise, 
sergoSr overbearing, selfwilled, serplaegni avarice, greediness. 

308. And- and bnd- (against), e. g. andviSri foulwind, 
andstyggiligr abominable , andstygS horror, andlit face, coun- 
tenance, andspajnis overagainst, andstreymis against the stream, 
ondverSr turned towards, foremost, at the beginning, (opposed 
lo ofanverSr at the end. This deriv. syll. is besides often 
opposed to for-, e. g. forstreymis with the stream, andsselis 
against the sun, forsselis in the shade. 

309 Awb- gives an idea of ease, and is thus the strict 
contradictory to tor- f298) 3 e. g. auSnaemr easy to learn, auS- 
kendr easy to be known, auSfeinginn easy to hold, auSskilinn 
easy to skill, (distinguish), auStrua easy of belief, credulous, 
auoVirSiligr easy to value, of little worth, auSseSr plain, easy 
to see, auSveldr easy to bear. 

310. Frum- denotes any thing original, e. g. frumefni 
groundstuff, (Germ. Urstoff,) frnmmdSir first mother (Eve,) 

10* 



148 FORMATION OF WORDS. 

frumgetinn firstbegotten , frumsmiSi an original ', first work, 
frumrit original writing. 

311. Endr- (again), e. g. endrbot reform, endrgetning, 
newbirth, endrgjalda, to pay bach, endrlifga to bring to life 
again, revive. Endr is sometimes found as an independant 
adv., e. g. in the expression endr ok sinum , Swed., under- 
stundom, now and then, off and on. 

312. Some derivative syll. are applied only to pron. and 
adv., and are therefore not met with in many words: 

ffv- asks a question, e. g. hvilikr? What like? Of what 
kind? H-, S- and p- have a definitive sense, as hann he 
hingat hither ; sa he, svo so, £vilikr such like, {>angat thither. 

N- denies, but is used only in the words ne neither, nei 
nay, no, (ecki) neinn no one, no (one at all.) 

313. Others are taken from pron. especially numerals, and 
have a more extended use; such are: 

Ein- which signifies (a) alone, e. g. einseta loneliness, the 
life of a hermit, einlsegr all of one piece; (b) extremely, e. g. 
einharSr extremely hard, hardy, einbani a famous manslayer. 

Tvi- two e. g. tvieggjat sverS twoedged sword, tvidraegni 
discord, tvib^li two households under one roof 

pri- three Jm'strendr threecornered, fmhyrningr a triangle. 

Fer- or fjor four, ferhyrndr four corner ed , fjorfaettr four- 
footed; the rest are compounded from cardinals without any 
change at all, e. g. sexfsettr sixfooted, etc. 

Einka- which limits the object to one only, may also be 
reckoned here, e. g. einkaleyfi privilege, einkahondlum single 
dealing, monopoly, einkamal secret agreement, secret discourse 
einkavinr bosom, friend ; though it seems to be sometimes used 
as an independant word, e. g. einka sonr only son, einka 
dottir only daughter. 



DERIVATION. H9 

Terminations. 

1. Which form substantives. 

Persons are denoted by the endings : 

314. — i which expresses (a) an agent, e. g. brefberi a 
letter carrier, post , leiStogi guide, hertogi hostleader, duke, 
vazberi w ater carrier , bani baneman, slayer, spellvirki one 
that harms, robber, meinsvari one forsworn; these words seem 
often to come from subst, though one would suspect them to be 
more properly formed from verbs, e. g. arfi heir, poet, son, from 
arfr heritage, felagi fellow from felag fellowship, raSgjafi rede- 
giver, counseller, from gjof a gift, drottinsviki traitor, from 
svik; (b) a countryman, e. g. Joti a Jute, Jamti a man of 
Jdmtland (a Province in Sweden) JuSi a Jew, Tyrki a Turk. 

Some of these are formed with the endings- bid-, byggi, 
and verl, which last however is most common in the pi. 
verjar,* e. g. Fjonbui a dweller in Funen , JaSarbyggi one 
from Jdder in Norway, Romverjar Romans. 

(c) This derivative syll. is used also of things without 
life; e. g. bruni burning, uppruni rise, headspring, kuldi cold, 
bogi bow, don slowness, sloth, auki increase, hiti heat, dau5- 
death. Many of these words, have in Swed. kept the ace. endi 
ing a, but at the same time been changed into fern., e. g. penni 
pen, Swed. penna, skuggi shade, vili will, logi fire, angi 
steam, savour, skari crowd. 

Words in -hugi (from hugr mind, temper), denote partly? 
turn of mind, partly the person who has it, e. g. elskugi love, 
and lover, varhugi wariness, fullhugi a man of high soul, a hero. 

315. -a forms (a) also subst. denoting persons, e.g. hetja 
hero, kempa champion, skytta shot, bowman, mannseta man- 
eater, cannibal, etc., which are all fern., though they are pro- 
perly used of males; (b) actual fern, answering to the masc, 
in i, or r, e. g. asm", fern, asna she ass, vinr, fem. vina female 

* From this ending are derived many names of peoples in varii, 
uarii, oarii, as well as names of countries in varia in histories 
of the middle ages; e. g. Vidoarii, Cantuarii, Bavaria etc. 



150 FORMATION OF WORDS. 

friend, gu8 fern. gySja goddess, Finnr a Lapp, Finna a Lapp 
woman', (c) many abstract subst. from adj., fita fatness, from 
feitr fat, birta brightness, from bjartr bright, bliSa mildness from 
bh'Sr ?ra/#, seigja toughness from seigr, deigja moistness from 
deigr moist; (d) a kind of diminutives from other subst., e.g. 
f>ekja from |>ak « thatch, roof, hella a /7a£ stone, from hallr 
sfo/je , smioja a smithy from smiSr smith; ( e ) Subst antiva 
actionis from verbs, e. g. saga from segja, sala selling from 
selja, krafa craving from krefja, fyrirstaSa hindrances from 
standa fyrir fo s/arat£ before, seta sitting from sitja to sit, 
£vaga « c/0m£ from J)va, upprisa uprising, from risa, suSa seg- 
thing , cooking, from sjdSa, gusa sprinkling from gjosa to 
sprinkle. Some are formed like infin., e. g. eiga owndom, 
property, ganga going, brenna burning. 

316. -r often forms a substantive denoting an agent from 
verbs, e. g. vottr witness from votta to witness, vorSr warder, 
smior, workmaster , smith, lagabrjotr lawbreaker, criminal', 
Sometimes also these subst. denote lifeless things, e. g. skar- 
bi'tr snuffers, (b) This ending also forms masc. subst. from 
adj., e. g margr a quantity, nogr sufficiency, sannr sureness, 
Danskr a Dansk, frfzkr a German. These are not masc. of 
adj., but real new subst., which is proved by their taking the 
final art, and being inflected like other subst.; e. g. Ek faerSi 
honum heim sanninn urn J>at, I brought home to him the truth 
of that. Einginn ma viS margnum , no one has power against 
the many. Danskrinn The Danskman, at sla spanskinn to 
smithy (a kind of game). Under this head may also be reck- 
oned the termin. -nautr, Germ, genoss, which comes from 
njota to enjoy, use, imperf. naut., and denotes, (a) a sharer, 
partaker, e. g. forunautr fellowtraveller, legunautr bedfellow, 
biidunautr fellowlodger, raSunautr colleague, or adviser; (b) a 
thing which some one else has had before, and which a man 
has either had as a gift, or taken by force, from him. These 
words, w r hich become a kind of Proper Names, are formed with 
-nautr , which is added to the name of the former owner in 
the gen., e. g. dreckinn Halfdanarnautr, the dragon (ship) 
Halfdan once owned, Gusisnautr arrows which belonged to 
the Finnish Prince Gusir. 






DERIVATION. 15t 

The word smiSr forms many compounds which answer 
very nearly to Germ, words in -macher, Swed. makare, Engl. 
smith, maker, or builder, e. g. skipasmiSr shipbuilder , sko- 
smiSr shoemaker, jarnsmi^r ironsmith, ljdSasmiSr versemahev, 
poet, 

317. -ir forms likewise (a) the names of persons, e. g. 
hirdir herdsman, lagabaetir legislator , one who amends the 
laws, etc.; (b) and also the names of things which have some 
reference to such persons, e.g. visir guide, leiSarvisir guidance, 
f>errir drought (see 77.) 

318. -ari is used still oftener, (a) of persons, e. g. pren- 
tari printer, malari painter, skrifari writer, secretary, borgari 
burgher, Brimari a Bremen man; (b) of things, e. g. pundari 
a pair of scales, steelyard, kjallari cellar, 

319. -andi is formed like the pres. part. , but inflected 
differently (68.), and is used most often in the pi. of pers., 
e. g. eptirkomendr successor, inbyggjendr indweller; and in 
the sing, of things, e. g. addragandi motive (69.). Some how- 
ever of these sing, in -andi are met with as fern, in old writers, 
e. g. qveSandi singing, but they are commonly masc. 

320. -ingi forms only names of pers., e. g. erfi'ngi heir, 
raeningi robber, morft'ngi murderer, heiSingi heathen foSurleys- 
ingi one fatherless, aettingi relation. 

321. -ingr denotes (a) a sufferer, e. g. lograeningr one 
robbed of his rights, skiptingr changeling , an idiot. niftrset- 
ningr a poor person placed in another man's house for sup- 
port ; (b) a person, and also a thing, of a certain character, 
e. g. spekingr a wise mom, logvitringr lawyer, andfastingr anti- 
podes , ferhyrningr a square. Names of Peoples in particular 
are formed with this ending from names of countries in ey r 
land, etc., e. g. Faereyingr Ferroislander, Orkneyingr, Islendingr 
Sjalendingr Seelander, NorSlendingr a man from the north of 
Iceland, AustfirSi'ngr one from the east in the same island, 
from fjorSr a firth; but most great and old nations are on 
the other hand called commonly by shorter names, whence 



152 FORMATION OF WORDS, 

the name of the country is taken, e. g. Irar Irishmen, Irland 
Ireland, Skotar Scots, Skotland, Gautar Goths, Sviar Swedes, 
or these also, especially in the sing, where these short names 
are seldom used, are replaced by adj., e. g. fr^zkr (mafir) 
German, J)^zkir Germans, Saenskr or Svenskr (maor) Swede, 
Gerzkr (maSr) Buss, pi. Gerzkir, from the old name GarSariki: 
now Russar and Russland are also said. 

322. -ing is the fern, ending answering to the above, e. g. 
drottning queen, kerling carline, old woman. 

323. -ungr also forms (a) names of pers. especially pat- 
ronymics, e. g. spjatriingr and flisjungr a cockscomb, Skanungr 
a man of Scania, brseSriingr cousin on the fathers side, syst- 
rungr on the mothers, Skjoldungr Scylding, Volsungr Washing, 
etc.; (b) but is also used of the names of things, e. g. fm'8- 
jungr a third fart, fjordungr a fourth part, (238), (mmlungr 
a thumb, buSlungr a pile of wood, graSungr and grioungr 
a bull. 

324. -aldi forms deteriorative words though not many; 
e. g. glopaldi blockhead, ulfaldi (ulfbaldi) camel, ribbaldi a 
ribbald , turbulent man , hrimaldi some thing begrimed with 
soot, |mmba!di a sloven. 

325. -Ungr serves to form (a) diminutives; e. g. baekh'ngr 
hookling, little book, verklingr a little work, ritlingr a little 
writing, yrmlingr a wormling, tinglingr youngling, frumb^lingr 
a new settler; (b) patronymics, e. g. knytlingr (from Knutr, 
Canute) Ynglingr (from Yngvi), Oldinbyrglingr a king of the 
Oldenburg line, Rerlingr a Carlovingian, whence again Kerlin- 
galand. 

326. -ill, -ull also form a kind of dimin. , e. g. kistill a 
little chest, bledill a litte leaf, boggull bundle, sendill mess- 
enger, biSill woer, friSill sweetheart, eckill widower, poet. 

327. -/« is the corresponding fern, termination, e. g, 
hrisla twig, wand, hnytla a little knot, pyttla pipkin, small flask^ 
(from pottr), or a little spring, from (pyttr), 



DERIVATION. 



153 



328. -hi, forms masc. dimin., e. g. sveinki a little hoy. 
also the dimin. of the mans'name Sveinn, Svend, Brynki dimin. 
of Brf njolfr. 

329. -ha, the corresponding fern, termin., e. g. Steinka 
from Steinun, blaSka the leaf of plants , graenka grass, harka 
hardness, halka slipperiness, etc. 

330. -ynja, forms some fern., e. g. asynja Asynja, Goddess, 
apynja she ape, vargynja she wolf and the like. 

331. -inna, seems borrowed from the Germ, inn, and be- 
longs to the new tongue, e. g. ljonsinna lioness, keisarainna 
Emrress, hertogainna Duchess, greifainna Countess. 

332. For the most common domestic animals there are 
separate names, given to the male and female, and sometimes 
for the young ones, as well as several distinctions of age; 
e. g. graShestr stallion, hrysa, meiri mare, as also kapall, faer- 
leikr, both of which words are masc. ; foli a young horse, fyl 
a foal; graSungr, griSungr, tarfr, boli, bull; k^r cow, qviga 
heifer, kalfr calf; |)randr boar, goltr boar pig, gilta a breeding 
so?v, sfr sow, gris porher; hrutr ram, a sheep; hafur hegoat, 
geit shegoat, kiSlmgr hid, hundr hound, tik bitch, tyhe; kottr 
and ketta cat, kettlingr hitten, bliki eyder drake, seSr, seSikolla 
eyder ditch; hani coch, hsena hen, haensni epicene, andriki and 
ond, drake and duch ; duriki or dufusteggr, and dufa, male 
and female dove ; steggr is used also of the male of other 
birds and beasts. Where such subst. are not to be found, the 
male is for the most part distinguished by the adj. hvatr (mas, 
masculus,) and the female by blauSr (femina, feminina.) 

The following express a quality or condition: 

333. -i, this ending forms deriv. in all three gend.; (a) 
abstract neut. in i are declined by the 4 th deck, but are very 
seldom used in the pL, e. g. sansogli truthfulness, riki realm, 
power, gae5i goodness; advantages. It is chiefly those derived 
from subst. that are neut.; they receive most often a dimin. or 
collective force; e. g. from bol dwelling, comes baeli lair, den, 
stye; from verk comes virki an outworh; from vottr wittness 



154 FORMATION OF WORDS. 

vsetti evidence, fjolmenni populous?? ess, famenni fewness of in- 
habitants, f)^fi a place full of hillocks, foreldri forefathers ; 
many of these however are only used in composition, e. g. 
miSnsetti midnight, hadegi midday, illgresi weeds, storrsefti dar- 
ing deeds, svikrsefti snares, treachery, iltyrmi venomous snakes, 
lauslyndi fickleness, illvirki illdoings , langlifi longlife, from 
nott, dagr, gras, raft", ormr, lund, verk, lif. 

To this place belong also those in dsemi (from domr) which 
denote a province, opposed to domr (343), which denotes the 
office of the ruler himself, e. g. biskupsdsemi bishoprick, herto- 
gadsemi dukedom, einvaldsdsemi monarchy, keisaradsemi empire. 

-neyti, (Germ, genossenschaft) formed from those in -nautr, 
e. g. foruneyti fellow wayfaring, suite, motuneyti foodsharing. 

-Imti, from adj. in -latr, e. g. rettlseti righteousness, ranglaeti 
unrighteousness, lauslseti lightness, siSlseti modesty. 

-ley si, from adj. in laus, e. g. sakleysi innocence, gtidleysi 
atheism, sin, f)eckingarleysi ignorance, vitleysi madness. 

These words must not be confounded with those in -leysa, 
which are fern., and denote a result, working, or a peculiar 
expression of character, e. g. vitleysa a stupidity, silly ness, 
malleysa grammatical fault , hafnleysa a havenless place, etc.; 
other deriv. in -i and -a stand in the same relation to one 
another, e. g. bleyta mud, bleyti soaking, (i bleyti in soak) 
and the like. 

Masc. in -i have been already spoken of (314). Fern, in -i 
are formed chiefly from adj., and denote an abstract quality; 
e. g. hreysti strength, speki wisdom, prffii grace, sanngirni 
fairness, hviti whiteness, bleySi cowardice. To these also fern, 
in -a are often opposed, which denote a concrete or personi- 
fied quality; e. g. sorta ink, hvita curds, bleySa a milksop; they 
are opposed also by others in -n or -ft, -d, -t, e. g. Pfsi de- 
sire, but f^sn an impulse, skynsemi wisdom, reason, but skyn- 
semd cause, ground. Those in -i which denote the quality 
itself, are not used in the pi., but those in -a, -n, -d, which 
denote its separate expression, are often met with in that 



DERIVATION. 155 

number, e. g. bleySur cowards, tysnir impulses, skynsemdir 
causes, 

Tolhis class belong also those in -semi from adj. in -samr, 
e. g. nytsemi or gagnsemi profit, gain, frsendsemi friendship, 
miskunsemi mercifulness. 

-visi, from adj. in -vis; this ending denotes (a), partly a 
quality, e. g. rettvisi righteousness, prettvisi dishonesty ', hreck- 
visi wickedness, Isevisi faithlessness; (b), partly a science, mal- 
visi philotogy, bunaSarvisi economy. 

-fr<eU, {wisdom, science) is the common word for express- 
ing the Swed. Idra (Engl, lore), e. g. malfrseSi the science of 
grammar, guSfrseSi theology , guSdfraedi mythology , Theogony, 
mselingarfraeSi mathematics, alyktunarfrseSi logic, salarfrseSi psy- 
chology , natturufrseSi physics; all these are fern, and declined 
by means of the final art. alone (160). FornfrseSi antiquities, 
archeology, is in the neut. pi., as also fraefti when it is used 
alone as an independant word. 

-speki, also serves to form some names of sciences, e. g. 
logspeki jurisprudence, heimspeki philosophy etc. 

334. -ni, forms, (a) fem. subst. from adj. in -inn, e. g. 
forvitni curiosity, from forvitinn, kristni Christianity, Christen- 
dom, from kristinn, heiSni heatheness, (heiSinn) hlySni obedience 
(htySinn); (b) and also from other words which have no n, 
e. g. blindni blindness, (figuratively) from blindr blind, einfeldni 
simplicity, (einfaldr), arvekni wakefulness, (arvakr), einlsegni 
strait forwardness , candour, (einhegr), raSvendni integrity ra5- 
vandr, naqvsemni carefulness, accuracy, (naqvaemr) beiftni begg- 
ing, request, umgeingni conversation, company. 

335. -erni, forms neut. subst. which denote a relation, 
especially kinship, e. g. faSerni fathership, or fatherhood, bro- 
Serni brotherhood, setterni kinship, liferni mode of life, lunderni 
temper. 

336. -indi, denotes a like concrete quality, e. g. harSindi 
hard times, scarcity, sannindi truths, proof rettindi rights, jus- 
tice, dr^gindi sparing, stinginess, tiftindi tidings, bindindi self 



156 FORMATION OF WORDS. 

denial^ visindi wisdom, know/edge, h'kindi fikelyhood . haegindi 
convenience^ etc Most of these are used only in the pi. 

337. -di, also forms neut. e. g. eldi fattening, food, (from 
ala) erdi wood for an oar (ar), skseSi shoeleather (skor), qvendi 
female sex, woman, (from qvan, qvon), ferSi from fara is used 
only in compos, e. g. siSferSi morality, skapferSi way or turn 
of thought, kynferSi kindred, framferSi treatment, behaviour. 

The ending -ferli has nearly the same meaning, e. g. viga- 
ferli frequent murders, trial for murder, malaferli lawsuit, 
sottarferli sickness, skapferli turn of thought. 

338. -ildi in like manner, e. g. seigildi anything tough, a 
sinewy piece of meat, f)yckildi something thick, thick hide, 
fiftrildi a butterfly, from fjoSur feather. 

339. -aid, e. g. kafald snowstorm, snowdrift, folald foal, 
kerald jar, rekald wreck, all that drifts on the sea, gimald 
chink. 

340. -an, e. g. oaran bad year, scarcity, overran foul- 
weather, likan idol, image, giman crack. These go along with 
heraS (4 th decl.) and must be strictly distinguished from fern, 
in an, or un, which are inflected like andvarpan. 

341. -si, masc, and -sa, fern, are used only in a few in- 
stances, e. g. vansi fault, ofsi pride ; galsi rude noisy mirth, 
glossi gleaming, (from gloa), kalzi (k&lsi) , jest, playful talk, 
skysza (skyssa, skysta) a mistake, oversight. 

342. -leikr, -leiki, masc, e.g. kserleikr love, frodleikr know- 
ledge, margvisligleikr manysidedness , multiplicity, eginligleikr 
quality, property, sannleikr truth, oclauSleikr deathlessness , 
saetleikr sweetness, moguligleiki possibility. 

343. -domr, masc, e. g. konungdomr kingdom, jarldomr 
earldom, sjukdomr sickness, manndomr manhood, villudomr 
heresy, visddmr wisdom etc. 

344. -skapr, masc, e. g. fjandskapr foeship, dreingskapr 
bravery, honour, hofft'ingskapr princely temper, munificence. 



DERIVATION. 157 

This ending seems to come from the neut. subst. skap mind, 
temper, which is perhaps the reason why so many of the 
words formed in this way are neut. in the new tongues; e.g. 
Swed. Landskapet, Sdllskapet , and Dansk. venskabet, etc., 
but in Iceland, selskapr fellowship, vinskapr, friendship etc. 
without exception. 

345. -und, forms some few fem., e. g. vitund knowledge, 
tegund kind, tiund tithe, niund ninth part, sjound seventh part, 
a number amounting to seven; to this class belongs perhaps 
also fmsund, at least it is fem. in old writers. (231.) 

346. - dtta, fem., e. g. vinatta friendship, veSratta weather, 
viSatta width, stretch, baratta struggle, difficulty, kunnatta 
knowledge* 

347. -usta (-asta), fem., e. g. pjonusta service, hollusta 
faithfulness, orrusta battle, fullnusta fullness, kunnusta craft, 
witchcraft* 

348. -ska, fem. denotes (a) a quality, e. g. bernska child- 
ishness, illska malice, wickedness, heimska foolishness, dirfska 
boldness, samvizka conscience; (b) a language, e. g. hebreska, 
s^rlenzka, arabiska, griska, franska, eingelska, f)^zka, islenzka, 
faereyska. 

The ending -menska, forms abstracts from most subst. in 
-mafir and -menni, e. g. gdftmenska integrity, stormenska mag- 
nificence; many of these express a business or doing, e. g. 
rekamenska the guthering of wreck, driftwood, sjomenska sea- 
being, (one who is drifted with a view toward fishing) vinnu- 
menska the relation of a servant, pulsmenska toil, overwork, 
karlmenska spirit, bravery etc. 

349. -eskja, fem., e. g. manneskja mankind, vitneskja 
knowledge, forneskja old time, heathenesse, sorcery, harSneskja 
harness. 

Some express a doing, action, or suffering these are in 
particular : 



158 FORMATION OF WORDS. 

350. Monosyll. subst. neut. formed from many verbs 
solely by throwing away the ending -a; e. g. tal talk, kail 
call, gap gape, {)or daring, raft rede, counsel, fall fall, hlaup 
a course, tak a hold, slag blow, drag drawing ; those which 
come from the 3 rd class of the 2 nd Division, change i into i, 
e. g. bit bite from bita, stig step from stiga, skin shine, sheen, 
from ski'na, those of the 5 th class change jo into o, e. g. bo5 
bidding, message, not &5e, advantage, brot break, rof bursting, 
lok c/ose, skot s^ot; or perhaps they are more rightly derived 
from preterites or part.; others take the same vowel as the 
imperf. pi., e. g. drap hilling, Aug flight (volatus.) 

Those of which the vowel is o or ei are fern., e. g. gjof 
gift, qvol torture, dvol delay, for journey, reiS roYfe, dreif 
spread, and the like. 

Many deriv. from verbs are also masc, but these are 
easily known by the ending -r, e. g. skortr lack, shortness, 
litr hut, sultr hunger, stingr sting, dryckr drink, stockr spring, 
gangr time, go, gratr weeping, brestr weakness, stigr path, 
vefr web, 

351. -8r, £?r, £r, masc, e. g. skurftr wound, burSr burden, 
stuldr tffo/i?, fundr finding , \ oxtr growth; and in -tir if a diph- 
thong goes before, e. g. slattr blow, drattr drawing, draught, 
|)VOttr (for fvattr) was^, washing, mattr might 

352. -ft, -e?, -£, fern., e.g. ferS faring, journey , byg5 ?^V^- 
bourhood, vaegS mildness, fylgd following, girnd desire, hefnd 
revenge , hvild res^ andagift ^/"^ of mind, wit, {>urft /jeed, 
scarcity, vigt weight, etc. This ending serves also often to 
form abstract subst. from adj., e. g. leingS length, sveingd 
hunger, stserS greatness, hae5 height, smseS smallness, vidd 
width, breidd bread, farsseld happiness, J)yckt thickness, d^pt 
deepness, nekt nakedness. 

Here also belong those in -seme? from adj. in -samr, e. g. 
skadsemd scathe, nytsemd &5e, profit. (189). 

353. -5/, -s#, neut. kensl kenning, knowledge, smyrsl saAj?, 
skr^msl o j?e£ feosf, {)^ngsl weight etc. (137). The word 
pisl pain, torture, is fem. 



DERIVATION. 159 

354. -elsi, neut., reykelsi incense, stifelsi strengthening, 
fangelsi jail, and some few others which belong properly to 
the new tongue. 

355. -sla, fern., e. g. reynsla experience, vigsla consecra- 
tion, hallowing, tilbeiftsla prayer, hrseSsla dread, utbreiftsla 
outspreading, veizla banquet, feast. 

356. -ingr, -ningr, masc, e. g. gjornfngr doing, reikningr 
reckoning, snum'ngr twisting, undirbuningr making ready, var- 
ningr wares, vinningr winnings. 

357. -ing, -ning, fem., e. g. refsmg beating, bygging buil- 
ding, sigling sailing, afleifting train, dissuasion, tilhneiging ben- 
ding, velly sting pleasure, bevisning proving, jatning confession, 
fyrirgefning forgiveness, lagasetning lawgiving. This ending is 
for the rest by no means of the same force as the preceding, 
but denotes the action itself, the former on the other hand the 
result or product, sometimes even the person, e. g. ysting 
curdling, but ystingr curds, veiling, cooking, vellingr pap; in 
the same way a distinction should be made between setningr 
and setning; skilningr and skilning (reason) etc., settleiSingr an 
adopted person, but attleiSing adoption, vikingr a searover, 
but viking a roving voyage. 

358. -ung, fern., seldom occurs, and is perhaps only a var- 
iation of the foregoing, e, g. hormung grief, from harmr sor- 
row, djorfung daring, launung stealth, hadung, scorn, insult, 
lausung levity. 

359. -naftr, -d6r (-nu8r), masc, e. g. lifnaftr life, hernaSr 
,war, foray, bunaSr tools, implements, sparnaSr sparing, skil- 

na5r separation, metnaftr reputation, honor, trunaSr faithfulness, 
kostnaftr cost, fagnaSr or fognuSr joy, feasting, jafnaSr or jof- 
nuftr proportion, fairness, manaftr or manuSr month 135. 

360. -stur, forms partly masc*, e. g. bakstur baking, rek- 
stur driving; partly neut., e. g. hulstur holster, blomstur, flow- 
er, fostur fostering, fosterchild, lemstur bruise. 

361. -orb, neut., e. g. metorS honour, worth, banaor5 fame 
of slaying a foe, death, loforS vow, promise, gjaforS betrothal, 
legorft adultery, prop, the character of an adulterer. 



160 FORMATION OF WORDS. 

362. -dagi, masc, e. g. bardagi slaughter, battle, svardagi 
swearing, spurdagi renown, skildagi, maldagi an agreement, 
dauSagi death, mode of death, which must in no wise be con- 
founded with dauSadagr deathday. 

363. -n, fern. , e.g. athofn undertaking, business, (at hafast 
at to have in view), heyrn hearing, spurn asking, spiering, 
sogn saying, skirn baptism, lausn loosing, vorn guard, eign 
owndown, auSn waste, wilderness, fysn lust, desire; but svefn 
slumber is masc. 

364. -an, -un, fern., e. g. verkan, work, preSikan preach- 
ing, undran wonder, ctyrkan or d^rkun worship, eggjan egging 
on, urging; frjofgan fertilising, ^rselkan thraldom, the being 
enthralled, 162. 



2- Which form adjectives. 

365. ~t, in the neut., (or -r in the masc), forms many 
adj. from subst. and verbs, where however heed must be had 
to what has been remarked in rule 186 seq.; e. g. almennt 
(almennr) from maSr, sart (sar) sore from sar wound, sore, vert 
(verSr) from verSr worth, nftt (nfv) from mi, blib'malt (bli'5- 
mall) soft -tong teed, from mal speech. In this way very many 
adj., having partly an act. partly a pass, signification, are 
formed from verbs with the vowel found in their iinperf. conj., 
e. g. laest (lses) which can read, or be read, from lsesi, im- 
perf. conj. of lesa; fsert (fser) which can do, or be do?ie, from 
faeri imperf. conj. of fara; the signification meant is often fixed 
by a composition, and many adj. are never used but when 
so compounded; e. g. fjarlaegt farlying, distant, mikilvsegt 
weighty, fmngbsert heavy, sjalfbyrgr independant, able to help 
oneself The active meaning is however more common, be- 
cause the pass, is denoted by the ending iligt, e. g. kesiligt 
readable, bseriligt bearable. Some on the other hand take the 
vowel of the pres., e. g. einhleypt (einhleypr) unwedded, vaz- 
helt (vazheldr) waterproof onftl (on^tr) useless, hverft (hverfr) 
deft, shifty, gjaldgeingt (gjaldgeingr) current, sterling. 



DERIVATION. 161 

366. -ugt, -igt, denote (a) an intrinsic quality, e. g. gofugt 
noble , verftugt worthy, kroptugt strong, naftugt gracious, 
merciful, oflugt vigorous, robust, malugt talkative. These are 
used especially of persons, and commonly add the ending 
-ligt, when any lifeless thing is signified, e. g. gofugligt ex- 
cellent ; (b) an external condition, especially dirt, stains, e. g. 
sotugt sooty, bl66ugt bloody, mjolkugt milky, harugt hairy, 
moldugt mouldy, full of earth. In -agt only heilagt holy is found ; 
•igt is common in old authors e. g. bloSigt. 

367. -it, (-inn, -in.) denotes; (a) a disposition or turn 
of mind e. g. hlyd'it obedient, i5it industrious, but these occur 
most often in the personal gend: as |)rsetinn quarrelsome, hygginn 
thoughtful, kostgaefinn careful, gaumgaefmn heedful, gleyminn 
heedless, mannblendinn affable, sociable, frifinn thrifty, bsen- 
raekinn prayerful , devout, guSrsekinn godfearing ; (b) a mate- 
rial , e. g. gyllit golden, silfrit silvern , steinit stony, sendit sandy* 

368. -alt, -ult, -ilt, -It, denotes a condition, or character, 
e. g. sannsogult truthful, stopult unsafe, svikult or svikalt 
crafty, tricksy, Jogult or Jjagalt silent, taciturn, gamalt old, 
heimilt rightful, fyckbylt close-peopled , forsjalt foresighted. 

369. -anda, (-andi), is properly the ending of the pres. 
part, but is often used to express a pass, ability, or possibility, 
expecially in negative sentences; e. g. ecki er truanda it is 
not to be believed, omissanda needful, oteljanda countless, 
ogleymanda not to be forgotten, ofolanda or oliSanda un- 
bearable. 

370. -samt, (-samr, -som), expresses a disposition or 
quality, and is consequently most usedin the personal genders 3 
friSsamr peaceable, nytsamr useful, rosamr quiet, still, gaman- 
samr playful, athugsamr thoughtful, starfsamr toilsome, dili- 
gent, vinnusamr the same, abatasamr gainful. 

371. -lutr, (-latr, -lat), of the same force; e. g. mikillatr 
highminded, storlatr the same, f>acklatr thankful, rettlatr 
righteous, £ralatr stiffnecked. 

11 



162 FORMATION OF WORDS. 

372. -ligt, denotes, (a^ something like, the Engl, -ly, like, 
e. g. hofSi'ngligt princely, hermannligt warlike, warriorltke, 
greiniligt plain, clear', these are especially formed from subst., 
which are often put in the gen., especially if the gen. 
ending is a, u, i, or ar, e. g. keisaraligt, imperial, riddaraligt 
knightly, upprunaligt original, skuggaligt shady, hetjuligt 
herolike, heimspekiligt philosophical, prfSiligt glorious, elegant, 
ffsiligt desirable, soguligt remarkable, otoiuligt not to be told, 
vem.Vgt essential, vetrarligt winterlike, skammarligt shameful ; 
sometimes also to the gen. in s, e. g. frseligt thrallish slavish, 
svinsligt swinish; (b) a passive ability, possibility (365); these 
are formed chiefly from verbs, e. g. geingiligt fit to go on, 
passable, walkable, hlaegiligt laughable, byggiligt habitable; 
especially in -anligt from part, in -anda, -audi (369), e. g. 
otnianligt incredible, obsetanligt irreparable, osegj anligt not 
to be said; still some have an active force, e. g. mefttaeki- 
ligt adopting and acceptable; (c) a kind of diminutive adj., 
or new adj. used of things, formed from those applied to 
persons (366), e. g. roskt rash, roskligt which seems to be 
rash, |>arft needful, jbarfligt that which cannot be done 
without, necessary , bliSligt friendly; this ending is joined to 
almost all adj. in -samt, e. g. friSsamligt peaceful, nytsamligt 
profitable; some are found only with this double ending 
-samligt e. g. syndsamligt sinful. 

373. at, (afir), -t (Sr, dr, tr,) expresses that a person or 
thing is provided with something, and seems to be the parti- 
cipial ending of the 1st, as it, inn, in (367) is of the 2«d con- 
jugation, e. g. hugaSr spirited rettruadr right trowing, othodox, 
hungraftr hungry, rafkraptaSr electric, haerSr hairy, hyrndr 
horned, einhendr or einhentr onehanded. 

-kynjat, expresses the Germ, -artig e. g. leirkynjat clay- 
like, jarnkynjat ironlike etc. 

374. -ski, (skr), expresses in particular some thing or 
pers. belonging to a region, or country, e. g. helvizkt hellish, 
irskt Irish, enskt or eingelskt English, gauzkt or (gautskt) 
Gothic, Norskt Norse; -neskt is sometimes added to the root, 



DERIVATION. 163 

e. g. jarSneskt earthy >"* himneskt heavenly, eyslneskt Esthnish. 
Esthonian, s&xneskt Saxon, eingilsaxneskt Anglosaxon, gotneskt 
Gothic, tyrkneskt Turkish. From names of countries in -land 
they are formed in -lenzlct e. g. islenzkt, hollenzkt, s^rlenzkt 
Syrian, utlenzkt outlandish, innlenzkt inlandish. From names 
of peoples in -verjar the ending becomes versJct e. g. rom- 
verskt, nor5verskt northern, |>^oVerskt or ^fzkt German, sam- 
verskt Samaritan. The form -ts&£ so common in the new 
tongues is found only in a few new and spurious words, e. g. 
hebreskt egypzkt (egyptskt) Egyptian; yet barbariskt and 
poetiskt (otherwise skaldigt) are found. 

375. -ott (ottr, ott), denotes an outward form; e. g. 
kringlott circular, hnottott globular, rondott striped, kollott 
oval, without horns, stordropott (regn) great-dropped (rain). 

376. ~rmnt, {rami, rcen), denotes a tract, e. g. norrsent 
Norse, northern, austracnt from the east, suorsent, vestraent, 
fjallraent from the hills (montanum) is said most of winds : 
Substantives are formed from these in -ra?na e. g. norraena 
north wind, also the old Norse tongue. 

377. -leitt, (-leitr, hit), from lita to see denotes a likeness 
in appearance, especially in hue, e. g. haleitt lofty, majestic, 
griinleitt grimlooking, rauSleitt ruddy, hvitleitt whity, graenleitt 
greenish (e. g. of the sea). 

378. -vert, (-verSr), answers to the Germ, -vdrts, Swed. 
varies, Engl, wards, and denotes a position, e. g. utanvert 
outward, austanvert eastward, sunnanvert (Frackland) the 
south of France, a vestanverSu Einglandi er furstadaemit Bret- 
land , In the westward part of England lies the Principality 
(of) Wales. 

379. -vwnt,(-vanri), from van hope, expectation, and sometimes 
vaenligtj e. g. banvaent deadly, (of which a man may die), 
lifvsent on which a man can live, uggvaent dreadful, skaSvaent, 
from which scathe is to be looked for, harmful, orvaent not to 
be expected, geigvsenligt fearful. 

11* 



164 FORMATION OF WORDS. 

380. -a, -i, form many indecl. adj., the last part of which 
are taken from some subst. e. g. JafnsiSa evensided, paralel, 
afsinna mad, landflotta banished , einskipa oneshipped , with 
only one ship, sjal/ala selffeeding (of cattle) bjargJ)rota helpless, 
destitute, heyfrota hay less, which has no more hay (195). 



3. Which form Adverbs. 

381. -a, is the most common ending by which adj. are 
made into adverbs, as gjarna willingly, viSa widely, ilia badly; 
it is particularly applied to all adj. in -liyt e. g. saemiliga 
decently, fairly, hofSmgliga like a prince, greiniliga minutely, 
ogleymanliga eternally, etc. Those adj. which (by rule 372.) 
add -ligt to some shorter ending, form adv. only from the longer 
form in -liyt, e. g. gofugliga nobly, bravely, nytsamliga use- 
fully, etc. Many adj. with other endings, which do not take 
-liyt, form nevertheless adverbs in -liga, e. g. J>acklatliga 
thankfully, haleitliga solemnly, majestically, erfiSliga pain- 
fully etc. This -liga which thus may also be regarded as an 
independant deriv. syll., is sometimes contracted into -la, e. g. 
harla (for harSIa, harSliga) very greatly, gjorla plainly, closely, 
varla (for varliga from var- (297) hardly, aria early, siSla 
slowly, lately. 

382. -an also forms adv. from some adj., e. g. siftan 
since, gjarnan willingly, saran hardly, heavily, but this seems 
to be properly the ace. sing. masc. because other ace. are 
also used in the same way; e. g. (roa) mikinn (to row) 
stoutly, strongly, (stynja) Jmngan to sigh heavily, (rida) roskvan 
to ride boldly, apace, harSan hardly, and the like: In this 
way also subst. and adj. are used together, e. g. alia reiSu 
already , alia gotu to the very end, until, alia jafna all 
through, continually, alia tima always, ever, langa tima 
long time. Of all the subst. thus used to express adv. 
in conjunction with other words, none undergoes so many 
changes as vegr way; sometimes it is put in the ace. without 
the art., e. g. (a) annanweg otherwise, f)annveg thiswise, 
hvernveg how, in what way; sometimes v falls away, thus 



DERIVATION. 165 

Jjanneg, hverneg; but since eg is an uncommon ending, f>annig 
hvernig, einnig also, evenso, are usually said* veg may be 
also contracted to ug (og), thus we find |>annug, : hvernug: again 
the article is sometimes adjoined, aungvangveginn in no wise, 
nockurnveginn in some way or other; but even here v may 
be thrown away, thus nockurneginn , einneginn like wise', or 
the whole ending eginn is contracted to in, Jannin thus, 
hvernin , einnin. 

In like manner the ace. (or nom.) neut., is used in Icel., 
as in other tongues, e. g. mest mostly, chief y, trautt hardly, 
with difficulty, eflaust doubtless, orrustulaust warlessly, peace- 
fully, and many more. 

The Dat. also often expresses an adverbial sense, e. g\ 
(grata) hastofum to weep loudly , stundum sometimes, tiSum 
often, laungum long (and many times), storum greatly, 65ru- 
visi otherwise, einkum especially. 

So also the gen., e. g. loks, loksins finally, allskonar 
allskyns all kinds, samastaSar in the same place, annarstaSar 
elsewhere, allstaSar everywhere, J)arstac5ar in that place, there, 
I cssa heims in this world, annars (kostar) otherwise, allskostar 
in all respects, utanlanz abroad, vestanlanz in the westland 
(i. e. the west part of Iceland). 

Prepositions also with the cases governed by them, often 
express adverbial ideas, e. g. a braut, 1 hurt, 1 burlu, a-way, 
i meSallagi midling , moderately, i betra , bezla lagi, well 
enough, very well, at sonnu quite right, at mestu leiti for the 
most part, at minsta kosti at least , at undanfornu aforetime, 
me5 ollu alltogether, meS |>vi at since, as, tilfriSs content, 
tilforna heretofore, til baka back, backwards, til hli'tar very 
much, considerably. In this way many comp. prep, and conj. 
are also formed, e. g, (til) handa einum for some one, a hendr 
|>eim against them, a moti against, i sta5 instead of, i gegn 
against, fyrir innan within. 

383. -an is however an actual adverbial ending, e. g. 
meSan, a meSan meantime, a5an lately, sjaldan seldom. Those 
adv. in particular are formed in this way which denote a 
motion from a place, e. g. heiman from home, heSan hence, 



166 FORMATION OF WORDS- 

innan out, from within, utan in from without, neSan up from 
beneath, ofan down from above. The distinction between ofan 
and ni5r is nearly the same as that in Germ, between ker- 
unter and hinunter, but between neSan, upp, and the rest this 
distinction does not seem to be observed. 

384. -i (at a place), e. g. uppi above , niSri below, inni, 
uti, frammi before, and the like. 

385. -r (to a place), towards, suor southward, noror, niftr, 
aptr back wards backagain; many of these words express also 
a being in a place, e. g. komingr var \k austr i Vikinni, the 
king was then in the east in the Bay. 

386. -at (to a place), but is found perhaps only in the 
words hingat hither, f>angat thither', whither? is expressed 
by hvert? 

387. -na defines adv. still more closely, e. g. svona just 
so, nuna just now, herna just here, J>arna just there, eilifljgana 
for ever and ever. 

388. -is is the common ending for forming adv. from 
subst. with the usual vowel changes, e. g. jafnsiSis side by 
side, jafnfsetis step for step, framvegis and framleiSis forthwith, 
furthermore, ardegis early (in the day) somuleiSis likewise, 
optsinnis ofttime, innbyrSis mutually, utbyrSis overboard. 



4. Which form Verbs. 

389. -a is often added without any change in the root 
of the old word , though the signs of the sexes always fall 
away from subst. adj. and prom, e. g. ofunda to envy, daga 
to dawn, heila to heal, |ma to thou Fr. tutoyer Germ, dutzen, 
sea to say ay, sveia to say fie ! miklast to look big, give ones- 
self airs, rikja to reign. The change which takes place in 
the two last, viz , that the syll. il (in mikil) is contracted, and 
that i (in riki) turned into j, is the same as that which 
occurs in the inflection of these words when a vowel fol- 
owsj and is not therefore caused by the derivation. These 



DERIVATION. 



167 



verbs belong to the 1st class of the 1st conjug.; yet some in 
ja must be excepted, formed from neut. in i, which belong to 
the 2nd class. 

390. The vowel of the chief syll. is often changed in the 
same way as it would be, if an i followed, that is, from 
hard to weak \ e. g. nefna to name (nafn) , fella to fell (fall) 
vexa to wax, grow , (vax) rettlaeta to justify (rettlatr), leysa 
to loose (laus-t) deyda to Mil (dautt, dauSr), girnast to yearn 
after, (gjarnt), dirfast to dare (djarft), gista to lodge, treat 
as a guest (gestr), rigna to ram (regn) stySja to stay, prop, 
stoS, mseta to meet (mot), basta to pay a fine, atone (bot), 
synda to swim (sund), brynna to water (brunnr); should the 
last cons, be simple, j is often inserted (by rule 88.) e. g. 
heygja to lay in a barrow (haugr), eygja to be ware of, see? 
(auga), qvelja to quell, plague, (qvol), temja to tame (tamt) ? 
Isegja to humble (lagt). All these ? which receive a vowel 
change, are inflected after the 2nd class of the 1st conjug., 
those only excepted which in their chief syll. have e, y, or 
soft i, with a single cons, following, and the ending^, which 
belong to the 3rd class. In this way many transitives are 
formed according to the 1st conjug. from intransit. according 
to the 2nd conjug. (286), especially from the imperf.; some 
times however there is little difference between the meaning 
these verbs, e. g. 



renna to run 
svelta to hunger 
skjalfa to quake 
spn'nga to split 



sitja 

h'ggja 

sofa 

ri5a 



to sit 
to lie 
to sleep 

pi. 

to ride 



rann, 

svalt, 

skalf, 

(sprack), 

sat, 

Oag) ? 

svaf, 

svafum, 

reiS, 



rfsa to rise up reis, 
bfta to bite beit, 
grata to weep (gret), 



renna 

svelta 

skelfa 

sprengja 

setja 

leggja 

svefja 

svaefa 

reida 

reisa 
beita 

a-raota 



to let run 
to starve 
to frighten 
to blow up 
to set 
to lay 
to still 

to lull to sleep 
to carry on 
horseback 
to raise up 
to bait 
lo trouble 



rendi. 

svelti. 

skelfSi. 

spreng'Si 

setti. 

lag<5i. 

svaf^i. 

svaefSi. 

reiSdi 

reisti, 
beitti, 
greet ti 



168 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 



falla 


to fall 


(fell), 


fella 


to fell 


feldi. 


hanga 


to hang 


(heck), 


hcingja 


to hang up 


heingd'i. 


brjota 


to break 


braut 


breyla 


to change 


breytli. 


drjiipa 


to drop 


draup, 


dreypa 


to sprinkle 


dreypti. 


smjuga 


to sneak 


smaug, 


smeygja 


to sneak in 


smeygSj 


sockva 


to sink 


sock, 


sockva 


to make to sink sockti. 


sverja 


to swear 


Bor, 


saera 


to adjure 


saero'i. 


hlaea 


to laugh 


hldg, 


hlaegja 


to amuse 


hlaegSi. 


hlaupa 


to run 


( hl Jop) ? 


hleypa 


to make to run 


, hleypti. 


bua 


to dwell 


pl.bjuggu 


» byggja 


to build 


bygdi. 



Some of these are the same in the infin., but still they 
must not be confounded together, because they are clearly 
and definitely distinguished throughout their inflections, e. g. 
sleppa slepp slapp sloppit to slip away 
sleppa sleppi slepti slept to let slip, loose. 

Brenna to burn, (ardere) (244.) and brenna to burn 
(comburere) may serve for complete examples in all persons 
and forms. 

391. -na denotes that the subj. assumes a certain charac- 
ter, e. g. vakna, sofna to wake, to sleep, blikna to turn pale, 
(blench) (bleikja to bleach) stikna to be roasted (steikja), 
hitna to grow hot (heita), bratJna to melt (braeSa), brotna to 
break, be broken, kolna to grow cold (kaela), sortna to blacken 
(sverta), J>agna to grow silent, kafna to choke (qvefja, kaefa), 
versna to grow worse, batna to grow better, folna to grow 
ashy pale (from folr the hue of death), rooiia to redden, losna 
to becomeloose. 

392. ^la forms dimim or frequentatives , e. g. rugla to 
turn upside down, disturb, from rugga to remote, togla to 
chew over and over, (from tyggja) , sagla to saw clumsily, 
to saw in vain (saga), staglast a to bawl out for (stagast a) 
japla to champ (jappa), biSla to woo, (biSja), miola to share, 
lmuSla to knead together in small lumps (e. g. pills) from 
hno&i to knead, hvaifla to water, setgla to delay, put off. 
This ending took its rise perhaps from subst. or adj. in ull, 
ill, il, ill etc. e. g« baekla to put out of joint (from baekill), 



DERIVATION. 169 

heila to plane (from hefdl) which last might be reckoned 
besides among those in 289. 

393. -ra, klifra to clamber (from kli'fa) haltra to limp, 
hlidra to give way, latra to be tired out, skakra to totter, 
svolgra to swallow. 

394. -sa, forms frequent; e.g. hugsa to think over, hreinsa 
to rinse, bopsa to yelp, jasza to say aye repeatedly, hrifsa 
(til sin) to clutch, snatch to one's self, bifsa, to jog, sway to 
and fro. etc. 

395. Some frequentatives are formed without any def- 
inite ending by a double consonant within the word (a the 
sign of the infin. being added) e. g. fvsetta to wash (from J)va), 
t>agga to be silent (from |>egja), totta to suck out, (perhaps 
from toga), skoppa to run, spring (from skopa). 

396. -ta gives a transitive force, e. g. jata to acknow- 
ledge, assent, neita to deny, bugta (sik) to bow ones' self, blakta 
to waft, fan, heimta to fetch, lykta to shut, gipta to give 
away {in marriage) (gefa), skipta to shift (skipa) ypta (oxlum) 
to shrug (ones shoulders). This ending -ta seems to come 
from the part, of the 1st conjug. in at , t ; just as the ending 
-na (391) takes probably its rise out of the part. pass, of the 
2nd conjug. in it, inn, in. In this way at any rate the dif- 
ference in meaning may very well be accounted for, because 
the 1 st conjug. contains properly verbs transit., while the 2»d 
chiefly intransitives. 

397. -ga gives a transitive force, and is used especially 
in forming verbs from adj., e. g. frjofga to fructify, endrlifga 
to enliven, refresh, fjolga to multiply, blomgast to put out 
bloom. Some of these verbs seem to come from adj. in -ugt. 
e. g syndga to sin (syndugt) , auSga to enrich (audugt), 
bloSga to dabble with blood (blodugt). 

398. - ka has the same force , and is perhaps only a 
variation of the above , e. g. aumka to pity, seinka to delay \ 
put off, iSka to worship, drive (a trade) tiSka to use, to be 
wont, bliSka to soften, minka to lessen; this is formed from 



170 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 



the comp. minna; as others come from short comp. the r of 
which, if a vowel goes before, is assimilated with k into cl\ 
e. g. haeckja to raise (haerra), stsecka to enlarge (staerra), 
mjocka to make thinner (mjorra) ; yet these words have some- 
times an intransit. meaning. All these deriv. (391—8) belong 
to the 1st cl. of the 1st conjug. with the exception of some few 
in -ta, which follow the 2™* class. 



CHAPTER XII. 



Composition, 



399. In the Old Norse tongue, as in Greek, the composi- 
tions are uncommonly free and extended; by these the want 
of many deriv. is supplied , e. g. those which express a ma- 
terial, origin j region, as also an increase, diminution and the 
like. Subst. are compounded with other subst. and with adj., 
seldom with verbs; adj. with subst., and other adj., seldom 
with verbs; pronouns are very rarely compounded, but if ever 
generally with adv., or subst. in order to form adverbs; verbs 
are not compounded with subst. and adj. unless they undergo 
a previous change, which at the same time alters them into 
nouns; particles, especially adv. and prep, are often joined to 
other words, yet only in so far as that they are set before 
them in order to determine or modify their meaning. This 
unfitness of the pron., verbs, and particles for composition, is 
that which sets a bound to such couplings of words in all 
European tongues , otherwise we should be able , like the 
Greenlanders, to say our whole meaning or sentence, in one 
single hugely long and endlessly compounded word. All com- 
position in our tongues serves to form new words, deno- 
ting one simple idea, not to siring together old ones each re- 
taining its separate force; e. g. aderlata to let-blood , aderlat- 
ning bloodletting , etc., denote one single thing, towards ex- 
pressing which the two words ader and later lose their former 



COMPOSITION. 1 71 

independance, and are as it were fused togeiher into a single 
word; but "du har ju ofta aderlatit honom" thou hast often 
let him blood" or the like, such it is imposible for us to 
string together, because neither du, honom or han, nor ju, or 
ofta allow of any composition. 

400. The last member in a compound word is usually 
regarded as the chief part, and of subst. and verbs this may 
rightly be said , in so far as by chief word that is not meant 
on which the thought should be especially fixed, but that which 
has the most extensive meaning , and is therefore limited or 
determined by the first part. But in the case of adj. it is 
hard to say which is the chief word, because comp. adj. may 
be often inverted without changing the meaning in the least, 
e. g. harfagur and fagurhaerSr, fairhaired. So much is certain, 
that the last part always shows to what class of words the new 
word belongs, and that its inflection is always joined to the 
end, e. g. gdSvild goodwill ', eldfimt combustible , in the gen. 
g6Svild-ar, eldfim-s. If therefore a subst. comes to stand last 
in a comp, adj., it must take the inflective ending of an adj. 
viz, t, r, etc., e. g. berbeint barefooted, langorSr longworded, 
wordy, 

401. H and v at the beginning of the last part often fall 
away in compos., e. g. likamr (likami) from hamr shin, hide, 
external appearance, Norftralfa Europe, from halfa quarter of 
the globe, Viljalmar for Vilhjalmar, gulln'ngr goldring , for 
gullhringr; Noregr for Norwegr, hverneg for hvernveg how? 
So also the article (17 J.) 



Composition of Substantives. 

402. Very many are comp. with other subst. and with 
adj., suffering no other change of the first part than throwing 
away the sexual ending, and consequently without any 
change at all in case the first part has no such sexual sign; 
e. g. Kyn-qvisl a pedigree, vagn-slod wheelrut , sol -skin 
sun-shine, jafn-maki co-equal, kalf-skinn calfskin, stein-spjald 
stone-table, mi5-sumar mid-summer, sma-fena5r small-cattle. 



172 FORMATION OF WORDS. 

403. If the first pari be an adj., it is nevertheless some- 
times put in the nom., keeping its sex sign, and retains in 
such cases its complete inflection in all the endings like the 
subst., e. g. heilagr-domr halidome, reliques, (otherwise helgi- 
domr), lendrmaSr vassal (lensmaSr), miftrmorgun midmorning 
(i. e. six dclk A. 31.) , Mikligaror Constantinople , Miklaborg 
Mecklenburg, BreiftifjorSr Broadfjord (in Iceland) j)ri(5ipartr, etc. 
in the ace. helgandom, MiklagarS, J>ri5japart, etc. 

404. If the vowel of the word be changeable b, it is al- 
ways turned into a, e. g. mja<5drecka meadbowl, lastvar wary 
against vice, jarSeldr subterranean fire, handtaka to lay hold 
of, etc. This takes place therefore in all subst. of the 6<i» 
deck, and in most of those of the 7th and 8th. 

405. Euphony however, or the relation of ideas among each 
other, often require the 1st part to be put in the gen.., especially 
where this part is as it were the object, or owner, of the last, 
e. g, rikisstjorn government, fofturbroSir father sbr other, andar- 
drattr breath, breathdr awing, solarfall sundown, pipuhattr pipe- 
lid, lagabrot lawbreaking , staeckunargler microscope, vag- 
nasmiSr coachmaker, gatnamot crossway. 

406. Sometimes the first part takes the ending -u instead 
of -a, which if it is to be referred to any case, must come 
from the dat. pi.; but it seems more right to regard it as a 
mere effect of euphony, and it might, if it did not belong ex- 
clusively to the new tongue, be compared with those Greek 
compounds in which the 1st part ends in o, e. g. manudagr 
Monday, liolsetuland Holstein. In old writers manadagr and 
llolsetaland are found. 

The same form is used in deriv. e. g. forunautr follower, 
motuneyti fellowship in food, matuligt suitable, fit; in old 
writers mataligt is also found from mati gen. mata measure^ 
moderation. 

407. Still more common is the ending i, especially if the 
1st part be an adj., or verb, e. g. villij)j65, a wild, savage 
folk, villisvin wildboar, and the like, which must not be con- 
founded with those in -w, which come from subst. in -a, e. g. 



COMPOSITION. 173 

villima^r wildman\ but villumatfr heretic, from villa , error, 
bewilderment^ brenniforn burnt - offering , from the verb at 
brenna, to burn, but brennuvin brandy, from the subst. brenna, 
brennu burning. Whenever a verb is compounded with a 
subst. or any other word, and stands in the 1st place, it always 
takes this form in -i, by which it is as it were changed into a 
subst., though this subst. never occurs but in composition, 
e. g. kennimaftr priest, clerk, kennivaldr hierarchy, priestrule, 
laerifaSir father of the church, spennikraptr elasticity, supple- 
ness, fyllisvi'n guzzler, drunkard. 

408. Fern, in -i, which are otherwise unchangeable in the 
sing. (160.), sometimes take -s, when they stand first in comp. 
or deriv., e. g. hraesnisfullr flatterer, hypocrite, hrySnismerki 
mark of obedience, gsetnislaus careless, beiSnisliga imploring. 

409. The names of regions, quarters of the heaven, and 
climate, often throw away the ending -ur in compos., e. g. 
Norftymbraland Northumberland, Austindiun, suSaustr, (other- 
wise landsuSr) south east; yet, Austurriki, East realm, Aust- 
ria, Sufturalfa Africa, are met with; besides essential -ur 
never falls away in any subst., e. g. silverbiiinn silvermounted, 
akuryrkja tillage, fjaSurfe barndoor fowl. 

410. Instead of the long gen. in - ar, that in -5 is some- 
times used in compos, particularly in Prop. Names , e. g. 
Magnus-ar, but Magnusson, Sigurftsson etc.; though this holds 
good chiefly of modern surnames. It is a more remarkable 
peculiarity, that when a comp. word, the first part of which 
is of two or three syll., is again compounded; it is commonly 
contracted so that the first part becomes monosyll.; e. g. Svar- 
faSardalr is a dale in Iceland, which has its name from one 
SvarfaSr gen. SvarfaSar, the history of the dwellers in this 
dale is called Svarfdaelasaga the story of Svarfdale ; lysthus 
pleasure house, but lysthusqvaeSi pleasurehouse song, NorSur- 
land, but NorSlendingr a Northlander, and Nordlenzkt North- 
landish', SuSurland, but Sunnlendingr, and Sunnlenzkt; utan- 
lanz, but utlendingr and litlenzkt, innanlanz, but innlendt, inn- 
ienzkt etc. 



174 FORMATION OF WORDS. 



Composition of Adjectives. 

411. In the compos, of adj. the first part commonly 
undergoes the same changes as the same member in comp. 
subst. The following additional remarks may however be 
made; many adj, are comp. of two others, in which case the 
last is always the chief word, e. g. sannheilagr truly -holy ', 
storgjofull openhanded, who gives great gifts, lauslyndr fickle, 
many are so comp. that the last part is a subst. which has re- 
cieved an adjectival form solely on account of the compos. 
f>rihdfftaor threeheaded , langorSr wordy, rangeygdr skeweyed, 
fagurhaerdr fairhaired, skammlifr shortlived. 

412. In many cases therefore where we are now forced 
to turn subst. into adj. (a change which otherwise never 
occurs), the old Norsemen effected this in a simpler way like 
the Greeks, by placing the adj. last, e. g. halslangr longnecked, 
sviradigr thicknecked , daunssetr sw eet smelling , smeckgddr 
goodtasted, vongoSr hopeful, varaftyckr thick lipped, nefmikill 
bignosed, foSurvondr hard to feed, skiSfaer skilled on snowshoon. 
In this way the part, are always placed last, e. g. sottbitinn 
sichnessnipped , dead of a sickness, rySgeinginn rust eaten, 
storgerSr boastful, efablandinn doubtful, alvorugefinn , careful, 
serious, wary, m^rarkendr swampy, oljukendr oily, jarnsleginn, 
ironmounted , ironshod. 

413. Some comp. adj. compare their first part, e.g. hatt- 
virSandi, haestvirSandi highworthy, highest-worthy, mikilshattar 
important, meirshattar more important, mikilvasgr weighty, 
mestvaegr or mikilvaegastr most weighty , h'tilvsegr of little 
weight, minstvsegr of very little weight. 

Composition of Verbs. 

414. Subst. in compos, with verbs do not constitute the 
actual object of the action, but denote something connected 
with the same, or explanatory of it, e. g. krossfesta to crucify, 
halshoggva to behead, handhogga to cut off the hand, or5- 
leiniija to talk ?vordily, auglysa to make plain, proclaim , etc. 



C031P0SITI0N, 175 

These are however not numerous, any more than verbs comp, 
with adj. as rangsnua to distort, tarn askew, sannfsera to 
persuade, kunngjora to make known, etc. Those comp. with 
other verbs, e. g. brennimerkja to brandy mark with a brand, 
are however the rarest of all. 

415. Adv. and prep, on the other hand are compounded 
with verbs in numberless instances, as in other tongues, e. g. 
afraSa to dissuade, inntaka to take in, utreka to drive oat, 
fraskilja to part from, etc. 

There is a remarkable kind of compos, in Icel. and 
Angl. Sax. which does not impart a single whole idea, since 
the parts do not properly belong the one to the other, but, 
when only for the sake of the construction, the prep. is taken 
from the subst., unless this be left out, and added to the verb ; 
especially when the latter stands last in the sentence, e. g. 
i-vera to be in, af-trua to trow of (anything whatever). These 
ought perhaps to be written separately, for if at or the auxil. 
verb be added, it is usually put between them, e. g. J)eir er 
mer J)6lti 1 Jmrfa at vera, which methought ought to be there- 
in ; this point therefore belongs more properly to syntax. 

Some indefinite subst. and adj. of this kind, which do not 
contain one complete idea, are nevertheless actual compounds 
or derivatives, e. g. (g65r) veSurdaga a (fine) day, (litit) 
matland a land bringing forth (little) food, (ilia) limaftr one 
who has (illmade') limbs, (vel) settadr (well) born. If no 
defining word stands along with them, they are commonly 
taken in a good and strengthening sense. 



Words commonly used in Composition. 

416. The words used in composition, as may be seen 
from what has been said above, are very numerous, but it 
will not perhaps be thought superfluous, to adduce in addition 
some of those most commonly added to other words in order 
to express a certain definitive though subordinate idea. 



176 COMPOSITION. 

417. Thus hofufi- head is often used first in compos.; 
e. g. hofufteingill archangel, hofuftprestr highpriest, hofuftgrein 
chiefpiece. This kind of compos, however by no means 
always answers to those in the new tongues, e. g. aSal- 
orrusta mainbattle, Swed. hufvudbattalj, atriSisord chief word, 
meginhaf great sea, ocean, meginfyod* flower of a nation. 

Pjod- forms a kind of augmentatives with the idea of 
excellence ; e. g. fnoSkonungr king over a whole great people, 
JyoSskaldr a great skald, poet, |>j65spekingr great philosopher, 
JyoSgata highroad. 

Stor- is used in endless comp. with subst. adj., and adv., out of 
which it forms augmentatives, e. g. storeign great possessions, 
slorhrer great buildings, storgr^li great stones, from grjot, 
slordeila great strife, stormenni great man, storti'Sindi great 
tidings, storrikr very powerful, storauSugr very wealthy, stor- 
gjofull one who gives great gifts, stormikill very great, stor- 
illa very ill. 

Smd- (from smdtt , smdr, smd), forms diminutires, e. g 
smasveinn little page, smaqvikindi small beasts, smamey little 
maid, smakonungr Mngling, small lung etc. In the same way 
as these two words, are also used mikil- and litil, marg- and 
fa-, but they occur less frequently, e. g. mikilmenni a tall, 
commanding man, litilmenni little, insignificant, person, marg- 
vitur much knowing, favitur little knowing. 

Nf- (from nftt, ?ifr, nf), expresses our new or newly, 
e. g. n^kjorinn newly chosen, n^mindaftr newmade, nystaftinn 
upp newly risen up, n^mseli news, etc. 

God- e. g. g65gjor5r good fare, goSverk good works, 
godfus wellmeaning, goSfrsegr having a good name. 

Ill- e. g. illgjorS ill doing, illmenni badman, illviftri bad 
weather, illgresi weeds, illfiis illmeaning, spiteful. 

418. Of words used last in compos, the most common are : 

-maftr, joined to genitives and denoting, (a) a man of a 
certain character, gafumaSr a gifted man, genius, mselskumaSr 
a talker, J)jonustuma5r serving man, motstoSumadr with slander, 
gleSimaSr a merry man, i^rottaniatfr one distinguished in 



COMPOSITION. 177 

athletic sports, bo&smaftr a bidden guest, a guest, liturnarmafir 
a painter; (b) a dweller in a certain region, e. g. Asiumenn 
Asiatics, Austurrkismenn Easterlings , Austrians , Trojumenn 
Trojans, ParisarmaSr a man of Paris, Strassborgarmenn 
Strasburghers , borgarmaSr burgher, townsman, lanzmadr a 
native (especially opposed to vikingar searovers), and by no 
means to be confounded with landi which means landsman, 
countryman; (c) one of a certain party , e. g. fjandmaSr 
foeman, boandmaSr one of the peasant party, konungsmaSr 
kingsman, royalist, which last must be clearly distinguished 
from konungmaSr king, kingly person, 

-kona forms fern., which answer to the foregoing masc. 
e. g. fydnustukona handmaid, motstoSukona withstanding 
woman, einsetukona hermitess. 

-land, the Icelanders seldom use any name of a country 
that is not comp. with -land, -riki, or the like, e.g. Indialand, 
Jorsalaland Palestine , Polinaland , Prussaland , Flaemingj aland 
Flanders, Valland Italy, ( this often means France in old 
writers), Serkland Barbary (Saracenland), The words -heimr, 
riki, and veldi are added to the gen. pi. of the name of the 
people, e. g. Vanaheimr the home or land of the Wends 
(Sclavonians) , Frankariki the realm of the Franks, S via veldi 
the rule of the Swedes; but -land often to an abbreviated 
form, which is perhaps the sing., e. g. S^rland Syria, Grick- 
land Greece, Frackland Finance, Eingland, Skotland etc. (110. 
178. 321.) 

-borg, a town is seldom named without being comp. with 
-borg -staftr -kaupdngr, or some other Icelandic appellative ,e.g fl 
Trojuborg Troytown, Kartagoborg , Jorsalaborg or Jorsalir 
Jerusalem, Akursborg Acre, Atenuborg Athens, Parisaborg 
Paris , Nioaros Trondjem , Kaupmannahofn Copenhagen, 
Stockholmr. 

-efni denotes (a) one who is about to be something, 
koniingsefni kingsheir. crownprince, biskupsefni one who will 
be bishop, prestsefni a priest elect, magsefni future son in 

12 



178 FORMATION OF WORD3. 

law , k^refni a calf which wilt be sometime or other a cow ; 
(b) an object for any sense, e. g. hlatursefni any thing laugh- 
able, sorgarefni any thing to sorrow over, 

-list forms the names of arts or practical sciences, e. g. 
malaralist art of painting , now konst or kunst (contracted 
from kunnusta) is also used in such cases. 

-horn forms diminutives, e. g. ritkorn a little writing, 
pamphlet, profkorn a small proof stundarkorn the twinkling 
of an eye, karlkorn mannikin, piltkorn a little boy, barnakorn 
baby, my dear child, (Dansk Bornlille.) 

-fullr, e. g. hjalruarfullr superstitious, lotningarfullr worship- 
ful; -mikil and -rikr are also used in like cases, e. g. 
abatamikill advantageous, avaxtarmikill very fruitful, gaezkurikr 
very good, all good, (used of God) bl65rikr fullblooded 
plethoric, etc. 

-laus forms negative adj. e. g. saklaus guiltless, huglaus 
spiritless, vopnlaus weaponless ; these adj. are often used in 
the neut. as adv., e. g. the word interregnum, is thus expres- 
sed , fm var konunglaust, hofSinglaust, pafalaust etc.; in regard 
to the subst. formed from this in -leysi and -leysa see rule 
333. -litill is used nearly in the same way, e. g. avaxtarh'till 
bearing little fruit etc. 

-gjarn denotes an inclination, e. g. metnaSargjarn greedy 
of honour, drottnunargjarn eager to reign, namgjarn teachable, 
fegjarn avaricious, miitugjarn corrupt, ready to take bribes, 
JDraelugjarn strifeloving , hence are formed abstract subst. 
in -girni. 

-vis denotes a quality in general, e. g. daunvis quick- 
scented, sharpsighted, prettvis crafty, deceitful, stelvis thievish, 
hvatvis petulant, saucy, la? vis faithless, 

419. Many more might be reckoned up, which form 
whole classes of comp. words, e. g. subst. -kyn, kind, kin, 



COMPOSITION. 179 

-tag way, manner, -goQr, -illr, -scell etc. But they are easy 
to master, and it would be endless to describe them all. I 
need only remark, that however extended and unlimited com- 
position may be in the old Norse, the chief word, or that 
which contains the general idea, must always be placed last 
in subst.; the genius of the language not admitting in the 
least such words as lKizoKora\x6^. 



12* 



FOURTH PART. 

Syntax. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

General view* 



420. The true Icelandic syntax is distinguished in general 
by simpleness, strength, and regularity; it seldom employs 
long or complex periods , but rather short and loose sentences, 
commonly connected by oh or enn (i. e. but) etc. e. g. in 
Egils' Saga, Bjorn het hersir, rikr maSr 1 5ogni, er bjo a 
Aurlandi. Hans son var Brynjolfr, er arf allan tok eptir foSur 
sinn. Synir Brynjolfs voru |>eir Bjorn ok por5r; f>eir voru 
menn a ungum aldri, er J>etta var tiSenda. Bjorn var farmaSr 
mikill: var stundum i viking, enn stundum 1 kaupferftum. 
Bjorn var hinn gerfiligsti ma5r etc. Or the following from 
SverriV Saga, Eysteinn erkibiskup hafSi {>at sumar komit vestan 
af Einglandi snemma, ok hafSi verit J)rja vetur i Einglandi fra 
stoli sinum, ok {>a saettist erkibiskup vi5 Sverri konung, ok 
for hann urn sumarit nor5r til stols sins. 

421. Nevertheless the construction is more free than in 
the new tongues; because the many and clearly distinguished 
cases, genders, and other forms, render it easy to find out 
what words are to be taken together. The chief word can 
therefore be placed at will in the place where it will have 
most effect; and in this way many circumlocutions of the 
new tongues are avoided; so that the construction is made 



SYNTAX. 181 

shorter and more powerful; e. g. Sagt er j>ar ok fra dauSa 
hvers {>eirra ok legstaft , there is it said both of the death of 
each of them , and of their restingplace (grave). Faii }>eir! 
aptr munu j)eir koma. Let them go! they will (soon) come 
back. Manninn skapaSi gud" seinast. God shaped man last. 

Again the numerous inflections of words require the 
greatest accuracy in writing and speech, because they must 
always answer to each other in the strictest way, according 
to the natural relations of the words in the sentence, just as 
in Greek and Latin, and perhaps even more strictly; at least 
we here find no such exceptions as in Greek and the Eastern 
tongues, where the verb and its subst. are sometimes put in 
different numbers; e. g. Haralds saga hins harfagra , the story 
of Harald the fairhaired ; here all three words must stand in 
the gen. masc, as it is not enough to say as in Swedish, Harald 
den harfagres historia, where only the adj., because it comes 
last , takes the posses, sign 's. So also Saga Olafs komings 
ens helga Haraldssonr. (ftseS ek) at fm fair Haraldi fraenda 
J)inum annat konungsriki. Sem ecki leyfir oss at vera oldiingis 
hirftulausum urn vora egin velferft. 

422. This regularity has been perhaps the reason why, 
in order to avoid monotony in the endings when several words 
in the same case follow immediately one after the other, it is 
usual to separate them by inserting some expression with a 
different close, or which stands in another case; e. g. gott 
verk ok astsamt, a good work and a lovely. {>a tdk pdrarinn 
til mals Nefjdlfsson. Fair munu lastalausir lifa efta glsepa 
(viz, lausir), instead of, Fair munu lifa lasta eSa glsepa-lausir, 
Few will lire without backbiting or without sin. Hoggva £at 
eSr meida etc. This is again extended much farther, in fact 
almost to every case where two words belong together, even 
though they may be of different kind and case; in questions 
and answers in particular, the adv. is separated from the word 
to which, or with which, the answer is made; e. g. hva5 
kostar f>a8 mikiS? how much does that cost? hvaS ertu gamall? 
how old art thou? Sva vara {>ar ljon stdr sera uxar. There 
were lions as big as oxen. 



182 SYNTAX. 

423. One ramarkable peculiarity of the old Norse is that 
the oratio obliqua is often suddenly changed for the or alio 
directa, viz, when the most important portion of a persons 
speech comes; e. g. J)a sogftu iEsirnir at hann (Fenrir) mundi 
skjott slita mjott silkiband , er hann hafSi fyrr brotit stora 
jarnfjotra; "enn ef |>u fser eigi {>etta band slitit J)a skulum 
ver leysa |>ik" Then said the JEsir that he must be able to 
snap asunder in a trice a limp silken band, he who had be- 
fore burst great iron fetters, "But if thou'rt unable to 
break this band, then will we loose thee. In the same way, 
and still more commonly, number and person are changed in 
one and the same period , viz , when at one time the chief 
person is more thought of, at another all who share in the 
matter; e. g. Sverrir rei5 vi5 500 manna til bus Simunar i 
Skriksvik; toku f>ar upp buit, enn brendu baeinn, ok fjorutiu 
nauta let hann reka a Vermaland. "Sverrir rode with 500 
men to Simon* s house in Skriksvik; they pulled down the 
house, but burned the hamlet, and he let forty head of cattle 
be driven into Vermland." 

424. The common order is otherwise quite simple and 
natural; the subject with the words which define it are put 
first, then the verb with the adverbs belonging to it, and last 
the object with whatever is joined to it; e.g. Sverrir konungr | 
samnaSi nu saman | ollu liSi sinu , which may however be 
changed in manifold ways, according to the meaning of the 
speaker, as well as the connection with the foregoing or fol- 
lowing clauses in the context. 



183 



CHVPTER XIV. 

Syntax of Substantives. 

425. Titles are generally placed, as in Latin, after the- 
Proper name, e. g. Sverrir konungr, Eirikr jarl, Guttormr 
herlogi, Otta kaisari h.nn mikli, Ari prestr, Vastes drotni'ng. 
Herra and Sira however (together with Fru and Madama, 
Frauken and Jungfru) are put before the name, e. g. Hra 
Karl, Sra jdn, because they are not the names of any actual 
dignity. Herra is used in old Norse of kings, bishops, and 
knights, Sira on the other hand exclusively of priests. 

426. Genitives and possessives are usually placed after 
the nouns to which they answer; in later times however it 
has become somewhat more common to set them first. The 
rule may perhaps be best laid down thus, that they are placed 
before when emphatic in the sentence, but afterward in all 
other cases, e. g. Ger5u f>at fyrir hennar sakir, do that for 
her sake! BroSir hans var kominn ao*r. Er |>eir fundu Gunn.- 
hildi mdQur sina. 

427. Where we in the new tongues (i. c. Swed. and 
Dansk) merely place two subst. side by side, of which one 
denotes a part of, or serves to measure, the other, the IceL 
requires that the name of the substance should either be 
put first, and as it were compounded with the other word; 
or also, if it be not a subst., or for any other reason be not 
suitable for compos. , that the name of the substance be set 
last with the prep, af, e. g. gefSu mer ofurlitiS pappi'rsbL$. 
Swed. gif mig ett litet stycke (blad) papper. Give me a little 
piece of paper Hann kastaSi kokubita fyrir hundinn , han 
hastade en bit brod (kaka) for hunden. He cast a piece of 
cake to the dog. Af barkarslyckjum |>eim r af de stycken 
bark , from the pieces of bark. Korntuiman kostar 20 r. dr. 
En tunna spannmal kostar 20 r. dr. A tun of rye costs 20 



184 



S YIN TAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 



rixdollars. LitiS af saft'rani a litte saffron. Einn knefi af 
rusinum eftr korennum a handful of raisins or currants. 
NB. The English language uses sometimes the lcel., some- 
times the Swedish idiom. 

428. Subst. which serve to fill up a description, are 
put in the dat. where we use by or in, and in the gen. where 
we use of Mann het Ormr rettu nafni, he hight Ormr by his 
right name. Hvat heitir fat oSrum orftum? what does that 
mean in other words? Hann fotti mikillar natturu vera. 

429. A subst. which marks the length of time, or travel, 
is put in the ace, e. g. komingr la far halfan manuS , (the) 
Icing lay there half a month, peir dvoldust far litla hn'S, they 
dwelled there a little time. peir foru margar fingmanna- 
leiSir *, margin* milur. They fared many miles. Hann for 
landveg, sjoleiSina etc. The only exception from this rule is 
the phrase. He went on his way, hann for ferSar sinnar (in 
the gen.) as in Germ, er zog seines Weges. 

430. If on the other hand such words only stand as de- 
finitives with some comparat., prep., or adv., and thus do not 
immediately denote the measure, they are commonly put in 
the dat. e. g. halfum manuSi seinna, half a month later. Hem- 
lngr andaSist vetri sidar. 290 arum eptir Noa fl65. SegSu 
fat, Eldir! sva at f& einugi feti gangir framar. 

431. A word denoting a means, instrument, manner, etc. 
is es put in the dat. without a prep., e. g. berja i grjdti hel, to 
slay with stones. Steig for fa fram 65rum fseti. Thor stepped 
then forward with one foot, pess varir mik at f u maelir feig- 
um munni. Var fat eiSum bundit. Sigldi Kiitr liSi sinu su5r. 

* A finginannaleiS contains one third of a degree after the 
common reckoning 



185 



CHAPTER XV, 

Syntax of Adjectives. 

432. Both the def. and indef. form of adj, are used as 
vocatives, e. g. guo* minn goSr! blessaor minn! barnit gott! 
hiisinoSir goS! ek vilda, goSr dreingr, at jm geingir inn i 
stofuna. Nu Jon litli! piltar litlu. But if both subst. and adj. 
be put in the def. form, then the sense is general and collec- 
tive, e. g. goSa barnit, the good child, or good children, 

433. When adj. stand as subst., the Icelanders put them 
most often in the indef. form; e. g. danskir the Danes, is- 
lenzkir the Icelanders, peir gjorSu allt f>at flit (gott etc.) vid* 
hann sem |>eim var moguligt. 

434. When an adj. answers to two subst., of which one 
is masc. , the other fern., it is put in the neut., even though 
one or both subst. be left out, and only understood from what 
goes before, e. g. Enn er |>au (viz Grimr oc Loptsena) voru 
bum, oc byr gaf, heldu J>au tveim skipum austr meS landi, 
(Orvar Odds Saga. ch. 1.) 

435. Descriptive adj. govern the dat., e. g. fagur sfnum, 
litill vexti, fair of face, little of growth, likr oSrum monnum. 
Words which define or strengthen compaiat. are also put in the 
dat., e. g. hverjum manni hserri, taller than any man. Hverri 
konu fegri. Ljosalfar eru fegn cnn sol sfnum, enn Dockalfar 
svartari biki. The Lightekes are fairer than the sun to look on, 
(in face), but the Darhelves svarthier than pitch. Gylf. ch. 17. 
prifljiingi styttra. Var J)a korn eingum mun betra. Ok er sja 
(fotr) J) vi Ijotari at af er ein tain, peim mun heldr sem, so 
much the more as. Instead of this |>vi or {>eim mun, the 
particle at with the comparat. is also used; e. g. menn voru 
|>eir at vaskaii. Eingi maSr mun Eirik kalla at meira koming 
J)6 at hann drepi einn bondason (210). No-tnan will call Eric 
any more a king, though he slay a peasants son. There 



186 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 

are besides many adj. which govern the dat. as in Greek and 
other tongues, but which it is hard to bring under any rule. 
Vanr J>essu starfi. Reior einum. Feginn |>vi. 

436. The super!, on the other hand is strengthened by 
the gen.* e. g. Hann var allra manna vitrastr. He was of all 
men wisest. Hun var allra qvenna fn'Sust. Er sva sagt at 
Egill geingi fyrstr manna i borgina. Hann var f>eirra a?5str (210). 

437. Adj. which denote a measure take to them the 
name of the measure in the gen.; e. g. halfar annarar alnar 
langr, one ell and a half long. Fimm qvartila og J>riggja jmm- 
lunga har. Five quarters and 3 thumbs high , fnjad'u ara 
gamall (otherwise |>ritugr). There are also other adj which 
govern the gen. but which can hardly be brought under any 
rule, e. g. ver5r, verougr ills dauSa. pa urSu f)eir f>ess varir. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

Syntax of Pronouns. 

438. Where in other tongues a personal pron. is joined 
to a Prop. Name by the conjunct, and , the Icelanders leave 
out and, but on the other hand throw^ the pron. into the Dual 
or PL, in the same case as the Prop. Name; e. g. Eyjdlfr var 
opt viS skip um sumarit, ok attu f>eir HreiSar mart saman i 
vinfeingi. Eyjolfr was often at the ship during the summer 
and Hreidar and he had many dealings together in friendship. 
Viga Glums Saga. ch. I. Einka gripi vil ek J>er gefa, er ver 
hoium mikinn tranaS~a=haftr-fraeiidr. i. e. / and my friends, 0* 
forefathers. Viga Glums Sag. ch. VF. Vinatta ockar Hakonar 
konungs stendr grunnt. Mine and king Hakons friendship 
stands in a tottering state. Enn vsentir mik at fundr vor 
Bagla veroi. / still hope that mine and the Baglarna's meet- 
ing will come about. Instead of a Prop. Name a title may 
also be used in the same way, e. g. Skildu {>eir jarl mefi 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 187 

vinatlu. He and the Earl parted in friendship. If on the 
other hand no definite person be spoken of, to which the 
pron. can refer., J>eir in the pi, agreeing in case with a Prop. 
Name in the sing., forms an idiom exactly expressing (he 
Greek 'ot itsqi with a Prop. Name; and may be rendered in 
Engl, by N. N. and his party ', friends, or the like, e. g. £eir 
Sigurdr logo*u fram. peim Hakoni byrjaSi seint. 

439. Hann and hun are always used personally, and sa, 
su invariably as demonstratives, and not as in the new ton- 
gues personally in the common gend.; e. g. JarSarmergr er 
blendingr af kalki og leir, ef hann er lagSr ut til viSrunar 
verSr hann aS dupti. Meiningin kann aS vera sumum auSsen, 
J)6 eigi se hun {>at ollum. pat, sa, su, again are used of a 
entirely unknown, and hitherto unmentioned person or thing, 
where we place a before the relative, e. g. Hann var girftr 
sverSi j)vi er hann kallafti Lang. i. e. He was girded with a 
sword which he called Long. Hann sagSi henni at J>ar var 
mao*r sa er skomm faerSi at |>eim. HeiSrekr barSist vid 
konung |>ann er Humli het. MeS |>eim haetti sem ver faum 
ecki skilit, i. e. In a way which we cannot understand, par 
e5 gu5 hvorki vill ne getr fmngat oss til gofts meS {>eirri 
makt, sem ver getum ecki rooti staSit. 

440. How the indef. personal one (Swed. and Germ. 
man) is expressed, has been already spoken of (228.). It may 
however be added, that where we use one in a sentence which 
describes how one should set to work in any matter, the 
Icelanders prefer to throw the clause into the passive, in- 
verting the form; e. g. f>a tunnin er skipt 1 vissa parta, er 
einn partrinn latinn dbrukaSr, svo hann er hvorki sleginn ne 
beittr. When the land is divided into certain parts, one part 
is left waste, so that it is neither mown nor grazed. NB. The 
English uses either idiom, though the passive perhaps is 
more common. 

441. The pron. one another, and the one — the other. 
are seldom expressed in Icel. by pron. (221), but usually in 
a shorter way by the simple passive, or reciprocal form of 



188 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 

the verb, e. g. er f>eir voru bunir hlaupast {)eir at. When 
they were ready {armed) they run one against the other. 
P^ramus og Tisbe J>au untust i ar. Pyramus aud Thisbe they 
loved one another of yore. 

442. Instead, of the possess, pron. the dat. of the person- 
al, are commonly used with subst. denoting any part of the 
body, and which are governed by a prep.; e. g. Fell akarn 
nockut 1 hofud mer? Gylf. 45. Fell an acorn on my head? 
Enn er hendr hans voru lausar leysti hann bond of fotum ser. 
So also, J)6rolfr fell fram a fsetr konungi. 

With the gen. of other words also the gen. of the pers. 
pron. are used instead of possessives; e. g. J>at stendr i sjal- 
fra vor valdi. 

443. The article is properly hit, yet often also f>at, and 
sometimes both are used at once in order to make a greater 
impression. Hinn is placed before adj., which then stand in 
the def. form, ; e. g. hit garnla, hinn ungi, hinn vaena, even if 
a subst. be added, as in Dansk; e. g. Hit gamla skip, Hinn 
ungi maor, Hver er su hin vama m»r? who is that fair maid? 
or it is joined to the end of subst. In the last case if an 
adj. go before, it may either stand in the def. form, e. g. 
unga stulkan, the young damsel, ace. unga stulkuna etc. which 
is more common ; or the art. may be placed before it here 
also, so that it is used twice, as in Swed., e. g. hinn ungi 
maSrinn, hina ungu stulkuna Braut f)ar hit goSa skipit, enn 
hit minna skipit helzt; or lastly the adj. is put indef. , e. g. 
heilagr pafmn the holy Pope. Which last however seldom 
occurs. 

After genit., posses, pron., and pres. particip., the adj. is 
often put in the indef. form, contrary to the custom of the 
new tongues, e. g. Efla vort egiS og annara sannarligt gagn. 
Farther your own and others true welfare. Gud gaf i dau&in 
sinn eingetinn son. John III. 16. Eptirfylgjandi snoturt rit. 

444. Partitives commonly govern in Icel., as in Latin, the 
genii. ; e.g. }>eir unnu baoir veik eins hinna. Sa3iningr var {>eirra 



SYNTAX OP PRONOUNS. 189 

ellifu mestr. Ek veit eigi hvart nockur varr mundi. / know 
not whether any of us will etc., Hver f>eirra which of them? 
or each one of them. In these cases the partitive is often put 
in the neut. sing., if it be of adjectival nature, e. g. Mart 
manna. Fatt manna. Hvat i jn-otta muntu vilja birta fyrir oss? 

But these words are also often set in apposition, where 
of is used in the new tongues, e. g. Heima menn Skallagrims 
foru til leiks margir. Many of Skallagrims house folk fared 
to the sport. Gjora mattu hann svo kseran f)er sem |>u vilt, 
eSa fleiri J>a fraendr. Jesus utsendi tvo si'na lserisveina. Ma 
fmo* sja af sumu fjvi er f)eir hafa skrifad. petta er ein su 
Jrfngsta byrSi sem a biianda folki liggr. Eitt hit saklausasta 
ok spakasta d^r. Verst eitt-hvert, something of the worst. 
peir letu eingan meS lift brottkomast, |>ann en a karfanum var. 

445. Numerals commonly stand as adj. in appos.; but 
sometimes as subst. with the genit., e. g. in Sturlusons Yngl- 
inga Saga. ch. 29. pa lifSi hann tiu velur, sva at hann matti 
eiki ganga, {m blotaSi hann (aptr) ok lit'Si hann |>a enn tiu 
vetra. 

446. Great numbers are read in the same order as the 
figures are written; e.g. 8325, read, atta {msund Jujii hundriiS 
tultugu og fimm. Yet the date of the year is usually reckoned 
for the sake of brevity after the centuries; e. g. 1817 read 
aljan hundruS og sautjan. 

447. Every other , every third year etc. is expressed in 
an inverted order, e. g. annat, J)riSja, fjorSa, hvort ar. So 
also with the art. e. g. At hvila hinn sjounda hvern dag. It 
tiunda hvert ar. 

448. Halft is used as in Swed., i. e. it is put before the 
ordinal, which it lessens by half e. g. halft fjorda hundra8. 
350, half the fourth hundred ', half onnur alin an ell and a 
half Hann var |>ar varla halfan annan dag. He was there 
barely a day and a half. 

Halft has the same force when joined to words denoting 
a persons' age, however singular the custom may now seem; 



190 SYNTAX OF VERHS. 

e. g. fnitugr 30 years old, halffmtugr is consequently, 25 years 
old, as also halffertugr 35, halffimtugr 45, halfsextugr 55 etc.; 
which expressions must not be confounded with the Dansk 
word halvtreds i. e. 50, halvfjers 70, and halvfems 90. The 
cause of this difference is, that the Icelanders reckon by tugr 
(10), but the Danes by tyve (20), from 50 to 100 inclusive. 
The Icel. halffm'tug is therefore 2^ times 10zz25; but the 
Dansk halvtreds (or halvtredsinstyve 2| times 20zz50. 



CHAPTER XVII. 
Syntax of Verbs. 

449. The verb is often put before the subj., though no 
question is asked \ but most often when the sentence is de- 
pendant on, or connected with, another going before it. e. g. 
pa var sagt J)rselunum til um {>etta kaup; letu J>eir korn fram 
ok malt ok seldu Asbirni. Siglir fwrarinn J>a a haf lit. 

450. An adv. belonging to a verb is placed before the 
subst. , as near to the verb as possible, as in Swed., e. g. 
Hann vatt upp segl. Hratt fram skipi. The case is the same 
with prep, which stand as adv.; e.g. f)a rendu at skipin Olafs. 
Matvseli, sem {>ena til at feita med fugla. In these cases great 
care must be paid against taking the prep, along with the 
subst., by which the sense of the clause would be entirely 
destroyed. If the clause be auxiliary, in which the verb stands 
last, the prep, is commonly compounded, or at least coupled, 
with it, e. g. Sverrir konungr haf&i viSset fessi snoru, er 
|>eir setluSi hann i-vei8a. KlaeSi, er jarl hafSr i-farit. Mart 
raeddu menu fyrir konungi um si5u f>eirra Egils, ok fannst J>at 
a konungi, at honum var h'tt at skapi slikt, er hann |>6ttist 
af-fretta i. e. (af J)vi, af siSum |>eirra Egils). This often hap- 
pens though the verb does not stand last, e.g. at meiSa folk, 
er l-eru kasta lanum. Margir hofftu ftyit, J>eir er aSr hofftu 



SYNTAX OF VERBS. I 9 J 

spurn af-haft urn ferftir Bagla. pat mun ek af-kjosa, er yo'r 
mun fyckja litil mannligra (i. e. of fessu, af f essum kostum). 

If neither the verb nor the prep, have any object in the 
clause, the prep, is placed before the verb, though in the 
new tongues it stands last; e. g. Ok fordi fa einginn amoti 
at msela, and then none dared to speak against (it), 

451. In narrative style, as in other tongues, the pres. is 
often used for the imperf. , which tenses are however often 
suddenly interchanged in the same sentence; e. g. for steig 
fram oSrum faeti at far er Skrfmir la og tystr i hofu3 honuin ? 
enn Skr^mir vaknar ok spyrr hvert laufsblaS felli etc. Gylf. 45. 
Th or stepped with one foot forward thither where Skrymir 
lay, and dashes (his hammer) against his head, but Skrfmir 
wakes and asks whether a leaf fell etc. 

452. Sometimes the verb is not guided by the actual 
subject, but by the predicate, if this last come between; e. g. 
far er enn sa slaSr er Himinbjorg heita. Hann a far riki er 
f niovangar heita. 

453. Particip act. in -anda, -andi, contain also the idea 
of the fut. part, pass., and thus answer to the Latin pres. part, 
in -ans, -ens, -ntis, and the fut part. pass, in -andum, -endum, 
both in signification and form; e. g. varla er triianda, it is 
hardly to be believed. Er nu gott berandi bor5 a horninu. I 
strax nefnanda brefi. 

454. The pres. conj., which also serves to supply the 
optat. (276.), often gives a strength and terseness in expres- 
sion which can hardly be conveyed in the new tongues, e. g. 
Latum hann fara slika for. Let us make him come as badly 
out of it. Minnumst a fat, Let us think of that. AfklaeSumst 
f essum ham. Let us throw o/f this garb. 

455. The passive is in the Old Norse. 1. reciprocal. 
(282.). Ingi konungr frelsaSist (i. e. frelsaSi sik) me5 flotta, 
King Ingi saved himself, got clear off, with the fleet. Hann 
let ei kugast (i. e. kuga sik) til fess at taka viS kristni. At 
lata eigi skirast (i. e. skira sik), not to let himself be baptised, 



192 SYNTAX OF VERBS. 

2. a mutual action, o. g. Er f)eir voru bunir hlailpast {>eir at. 
When they were ready 1hey run against each other. The 
proper pass, meaning on the other hand is rather expressed 
by a periphrase as in Germ., e. g. f>a var {>ar flutt 1 vist 
ok onnur faung. Then was brought thither food and other 
neadful things. Ok var J>ar gjor ssettin, and then atonement 
was made, 

456. The ace. with the infin. is a very common constrnc- 
tion in Ice!.; e. g. |>er qvaSut solina fara skjotar, dixistis 
solem celerius procedere. If the ace. be a personal pron. and 
the same person the subj. in the sentence, it is omitted, and 
the verb put in the pass.; e. g. Ek sagSist (i. c. sagSi mik) 
ecki trua })vi. Hann qveftst (i. e. qveSr sik) Gestr heita. 
Hann qvaSst (qvad* sik) aatla. Hann lezt (let sik) mundu, he 
let it be understood he would. It is besides remarkable that 
if any adj. or the like, answer to the ace. left out, it is not- 
withstanding put in the norm, e. g. {>eir qvadust allir til J>ess 
skyldir. peir qvadust J>vi fegnir ver5a. 

457. The double genit. of the Greeks, and the double 
ablative of the Latins, are expressed in Icel. by two dat. and 
the prep, at, e. g. At {m gjdrvu, hoc facto. At endaSum 
sjukdominum. 

458. Some verbs, which in the new tongues take a simple 
infin. after them, require in Icel. the infin. with at; thus kunna, 
and fora to dare, e. g. Einginn {)eirra kunni at st^ra skipi. 
Where we have the simple infin. with a prep, before it, the 
Icelanders commonly insert |>at in the case required by the 
prep.; e. g. Eg get eigi betr utmala5 })etta, en ine5 {m at 
segja fra hversu, etc. Ek vil gefa honum orlof til |>ess at 
fara heim til Skotlands. / will give him leare to fare home 
to Scotland. 

459. Here, as in other tongues veibs govern various 
cases; but it is hard, or perhaps impossible, to give sure 
rules, as to which govern one, and which another case. The 
reason of this government is doubtless that certain prep, are 
left out; sometimes indeed these expressions are found at full 



SYNTAX OF VEBBS. 193 

length, e. g. fylgja (me5) einum; but since the cases are so 
positively defined, there was no need on most occasions to insert 
the preposition. A verb is often joined to several subst., of 
which one denotes the actual object, another the person in 
view, a third some casual circumstance, etc. These must be 
well distinguished , because they are usually put in different 
cases. 

460. Most transitivesj the object of which is immediate 
and direct, govern the ace ; e. g. sla, drepa, elska, iSka, taka^ 
leggja, reisa, fella, bera, grata einhvern, to ?veep for any one, 
byrja soguna to begin the tale, and numbers more. 

461. Many verbs which have the signification of setting 
a thing in motion , without sharing in it oneself, govern a 
dat.; e. g. snua, venda, kasta^ fleygja (to sling, properly 
to cause to fly}-, skjota , leggja spjoti to stick with a 
spear , sla ollu i vind to make light of, to neglect, 
hleypa fyrir lokunni, to shoot the bolt against, lypta , hefja, 
sa, dreifa to spread, scatter , drey pa to drop, pour, stock va 
to make to spring, sdekva to sink etc. So also fara and 
koma, when used transitively, e. g. Hann kom A'sum opt i 
vandrseSi. Ef hann fer minum ra5um fram. So also many 
which mean to govern, change, destroy, help, protect, etc. 
ra5a sigri, st^ra skipi, bjdSa gestum, valda bagganum to be 
equal to the burden, bregma biii to change one's house, breyta 
to change, steypa dvinum si'num, hrinda (imperf. hratt) einum 
i eldinn, umturna, granda, ey5a, farga, tapa, t^na to lose, 
eyra, hlifa, |>yrma, hjalpa, bjarga, duga, skyla etc. 

462. Those principally govern the genit. which signify to 
desire, wish, and the like; such often take the pers. to them in 
the ace. and the thing in the genit.; e. g. beida, biSja einn nockurs, 
spyrja hann ra5a, fregna, krefja, dska, afla to earn, gain, leita, 
raSa, bi"5a, gseta , to take care, get a to talk of, njdta, 
unna, etc. In the case of these words the pers. who is the 
obj., must be carefully distinguished from that for the sake 
of which the action is undertaken; e. g. bioj a einn friSar to 
ask some one for peace, but bidja einum frioar ask for peace 
for some one. 

13 



194 SYNTAX OF VERBS. 

It' the name of a person be placed with this verb in the 
genit the meaning" becomes to woo, e. g. jEllar {m at biSja 
hennar. Dost thou mean to woo her. In the same way fa is 
used with the gen., when it means to get to wife. e. g. Hann 
feck Jeirrar konu er porun het. He got to wife a woman 
hight Tliorun. 

463. When the verbs which govern the dat. are thrown 
into the pass., they become impersonal and keep the object 
in the dat; e.g. at safna liSi, pass, var Jm liSi safnat. BregSa 
sverSi, pass., Tyrfingr varS manns bani, hvern tima er honum 
var brugSit. Tyrfingr was a marts hane every time use was 
made of it. Skipta akri , pass, akrinum hafSi skipt verit meS 
landinu. These often do not become actual pass, but only 
impersonals act. in Icel., though in the new tongues they must 
be expressed as passive; e. g. ljuka to end, close, svo \fkv 
her hverju hestajringi. Such is the ending of every horse fight. 
Slitr nu verzlu j)essari. Eptir urn daginn skaut upp likunum. 
In a corresponding w T ay many verbs are used which govern 
the ace. as an impers. act, where the new tongues require 
the pass., or some other personal verb, e. g. f>vi haerra sem 
reykinn lagSi i loptit upp. Jarl setti dreyrrauSan. Bra honum svo 
vi8 at hann ger5i folvan i andliti. He became so changed, that 
he was pale as death in his face. 

464. Of the conj. it must especially be remarked, that 
the pres. is used without a conjunction when the clause may 
be filled up with if or in case; e. g. Se Jmt svo, {>a lset ek J>at 
vera. If that be so, then I will let it be. i. e. it will do very 
rvelL Vili hann ecki meS goSu, J>a komdu til min. Komi hann 
ame5an eg er burtu etc. The imperf. is used nearly in the 
same cases, the chief difference being that when the imperf. 
is used it is hardly expected or hoped that the thing will 
happen; e. g. vseri Jmt svo, £a vseri }>at sok ser. Were that 
so there would be something in it. Ksemi hann ameSan eg 
er burtu, (sem ecki mun ver'Sa ) Should he come (ivhich 
will scarce be), while I am away. This way of turning the 
sentence is especially used in very polite requests; e. g. in 
letters. Maetti eg sja lmu fra y5r urn J)etta mal, f)etti mer 



SYNTAX OF PARTICLES. 195 

\rat ofrvsent. VilduS f)er gera svo vel, f)a vaeri eg y8r mikit 
skuldbundinn. For the rest J)6 J)6tt, although, and svo so, 
so that, together with at after verbs which do not express a 
thorough certainty, always govern a conjunctive, e. g. Eg veit 
at hann var f)ar. / know that he was there, but, Eg held 
hann hafi veriS ]bar. / thought he had been there. Enn J)6 
svo vseri. Hann vek ser vi5 svo |>u sseir {>a! betr. He mov- 
ed himself so that thou might est see that better, 



CHAPTER XVIII. 
Particles. 

465. With verbs expressing a journey or short stay, the 
Icelanders almost always add some adverb expressing the 
region, which in the new tongues is altogether redundant, 
e. g. Gunnhildr gerSi ferS sina su5r til Romarborgar. Erlingr 
jarl var J)a i vikinni austr. 

Sometimes the place , whence or whither the journey is 
made, is not mentioned by name, but the adv. only is used; 
in these cases it must be retained and translated, or else 
supplied by the name of the place itself; e. g. Sunnan langt 
ur heimi , Out of the far distant southern world, pegar hann 
kom austr, When he came to the East. 

466. It is also remarkable that an affirmative answer is 
made to a negative sentence, when the negation is meant to 
be assented to or strengthened; e.g. po J)icki mer mikit undir, 
at J)er rjufit eigi |>essa ssett: Sva munu ver {>a gjora, segir 
Skarpheomn. Leyfa mun ek, ef J>er prettift hann i ongu; |>eir 
qvaSust sva gera mundu. 

467. Where the case alone is not sufficient to determine 
the relation of ideas , prepositions are brought in to help the 
meaning; these require, as in Latin and Greek, certain cases^ 

13* 



196 



SYNTAX OF PARTICLES. 



which they are said to govern; some prep, govern several 
cases, according to their different meanings. 

468. The following govern the ace. alone. 
Um. (of) about, concerning umhverfis. round about 



ingum. ) 
ringum. J 



krim 

ikringui 

litum. 

innum. 

l'gcgnum. 



round about 

out, outwards 
in, inwards 
through 



umfram. 

framyfir. 
framundir. 
fyrir norSan 



besides 

over and above 

until, upto 

to the north of 



and several such like compounds; e. g. fyrir sunnan fjall 
south of the mountains, fells, fyrir handan ana beyond the 
river, fyrir titan baeinn outside the town. Um and of, are some- 
times found in old poetry with the dat. 



469. 


These always govern 


the Dat. 




af 

utaf 

fra 


of 

of (a material) 
from 


hja 

framhja 
a samt 


with (apud) 
past, by 
together with 


ur 

litiir 

uppiir 

framur 

undan 


out of 
out of 

beyond, above 
above 
away from 


gagn vart 
(til) handa 
a hendr 
a moti | 
i moti \ 


over against 
for, (pro) 
against 

against 


aundan 


before hand 


gegn, i gegn 


against, (contr 



The frequent compounds with fra, e. g. yfir-fra over- 
against, austr-fra east fro , litifra away from, etc. are actually 
adv., and seldom govern any case unless they are used sep- 
arately as two words, so that the prep, takes its usual mea- 
ning, e. g. upp-fra aloft, above, but upp fra J>vi from this 
time forth. 

470. The following govern only the Genit. 

a milli a meSal. between, among. til. to. 

i stao". instead of an. without, (sine). 

i sakir. j utan. without, beyond. 

(fyrir) sokum [ by means of. innan. within. 

[ vegna ) auk. besides. 



SYNTAX OF PARTICLES. 197 

So also those comp. with megin, e. g. baou megin arinnar 
on both sides the river, oornmegin on one (or the other) side, 
hinumegin on the other side, beyond, fessumegin, hernamegin, 
on this side, ollnmegin on all sides; which are however often 
used as adv. , and besides comp. with the prep vi5 , e. g, 
hernamegin vi5 ana on this side of the river. Badum megin etc. 
are also found. 

471. The following govern both the ace. and dat. 



a, uppa 

1 

meft 


on, upon, 
in, to. 
with. 


§L a. a 


after. 

before. 

under. 


vi5 


with, at. 


yfir 


over. 



The main rule in leek, as in other tongues, is that these 
govern the ace. when they denote motion to, the dat. when 
they express rest at, a place; e. g. fat stendr mer sifeldliga 
fyrir augum. pegar ek leiddi honum fyrir sjonir. But since 
they do not always refer to a place, this is not enough to 
give a clear notion of their application. The following points 
should therefore be attended to. 

472. A' governs the ace, (a) when it has the meaning 
to a place, e. g. stiga a skip, go on board, bera a tuninn, 
to carry dung to a field; (b) when it means against, in, at, 
e. g. faera a vindinn to go against the wind, renna a lyktina. 
pat er a folinn that is up hill, is steep , ( opposed to undan 
faeti; (c) when it means in a certain way, e. g. a J)ann halt, 
a J>a lei5a, a hinn kantinn, a aSra (hfna) si'Suna, a hsegri hli$- 
ina on the right side. So also hann la a bakit he lay on his 
back , if a bakinu were said , the meaning would be upon the 
back (of some one else), a norrsena tungu, a bok fessa let ek 
rita; (d) when it means in regard to , e. g. j>at vex mi5r a 
haeSina. DauSa-vatn er goSar j>rjar fingmannaleiSir a leingd, 
enn halfonnur a breidd; (e) w T hen it denotes an indef. time, or 
when something is wont to happen in general, e. g. kulda- 
stormar ganga a vorin. Sjalfraedi er busmala hollast a sumrin 
(sumrum) 



198 SYNTAX OF PARTrCLES. 

So also., a vcturna, a haustin, a nsetr, nretrnar, a qvdld-in, 
morgna a sumardag, vetrardag, during the summer, winter, 
and also of a fixed day in the week, e. g. a laugurdaginn 
kemr, on Saturday, a sunnudaginn var, on Sunday. 

It governs the dat. when it means at a place, e. g. fat 
stendr a hafum hoi, a oftrum staS segir harm; (b) when used 
of a definite time when anything actually happens, a hvorju 
qvoldi, a hvorri nottu, a ari (hvorju), a fyrsta ari, a Jjeim al- 
dri , a dagmalum at 9 o'clk in the forenoon, a hadeginu at mid- 
day. So also of a certain day in the week in distinction from 
other weekdays e. g. a laugardegi on a Saturday, a sumar- 
degi on a summerday. For the rest the use of this prep, with 
regard to time is uncertain, and seems partly to depend on 
euphony, e. g. a vorin, a haustin, are said, but a sumrum, 
vetrum, without the art.; both a sumur and a sumri are 
said, etc.; (c) when it means about, of, with or by, in a figur- 
ative sense e. g. fa Recking a einhverju. Eg er a feirri tru. 
Hann lifir a maiaferlum he lives by lawsuits. Hun hefir aSra 
meoTerS a kum, naepum, etc. 

Uppa in like manner is used, though rarely, with the dat. 
if the meaning be upon, e. g. |>a fer tiininu aptr uppa grasvoxt. 
Hann st65 uppa murnum. 

473. I' governs the ace. when it means (a) to a place, 
e. g. kom fessi saga a5 hausti i Tiinsberg. For J>ann tift 
mart norSmanna i Miklagar5. Vseringjar attu at fara i herfor 
nockra; (b) when used of time, e. g. i fann tima at that time, 
i gamla daga in days of yore, i annat ok frioja sinn for the 
second and third time, yet i fessari tiS is also said in the 
dat.; i J)vi bili in the mean time, i feirra svipan at the same 
time. 

It governs the ace. when it means at, in, or the like, 
e. g. konungr var fa ecki i baenum, fat stendr i oftrum kapit- 
ula. Ok i J)eim alia feirra eptirkomendr. This prep, also is 
comp. with many adv., thus , uppi up in , liti out in, without, 
inni within, framm i, etc. 



SYNTAX OF PARTICLES. 199 

474. MeS takes the ace. when one brings along with one 
some lifeless thing , or some one who must unconditionally 
follow, e. g. Ecki hefir hann komit meo* bokina enn. pa foru 
menn amoti honum meo* mann fjotraSan. 

It requires the flat, when it denotes (a) an instrument 
e. g. fjotraSr mef5 hleckjum myrkranna; (b) when it means 
with, among, e. g. Gott })ykir mer meS j)er at vera. Landinn 
var skipt me5 f>eim; (c) when it means along e. g. Sur5r meS 
landi southwards along the land ; (d) or 3 along with e. g. 
Hann geek lit mef5 konu sinni; (e) or by means of \ Hann synSi 
meo* hugpr^Si sinni at etc. peir geingu amoti honum med* 
miklum veg, and in such like phrases. 

475. Vio* takes the ace. when it is used of place, or 
answers to the Swed. vid, Engl, at, by, with, e. g. vi'5 baemn, 
vio* garSinn, vio* ]petta fognuou j)eir allir. Var hann gd'o> vid* 
Jn'g? Eg taladi leingi vid* hann. Hvat5 er {>ao* at reikna 
viS hitt? 

It requires the dat. when it means against, e. g. gaeta 
sin vio' einhvorju. Hann tok vid* Birni, Skotar eru lausir a 
velli, ef vid* J)eim er horfl. pat er gott vid morgum sjuk- 
domum. That is good against many sicknesses. Mig velgir 
viS f)Vi. 

476. Eptir takes the ace. when it expresses the Latin 
post, after, but the dat., when it may be rendered by se- 
cundum, according to, along with. e. g. Eptir midjan morgun. 
Eptir minn dag. Eptir J>eirri reglu. Eptir anni. 

477. Fyrir governs the acc v (a) when it is used of time, 
before, fyrir timann before the time, litlu fyrir vetur; (b) when 
it means instead of for, e. g. at gjalda fyrir einhvern. Hann 
sendi mann fyrir sig; (c) or,, by means of, by, veida salu- 
holpinn fyrir truna, to be saved by faith ; (d) when used of 
the price of anything, e. g. Hva'S gafstu fyrir baekrnar? what 
gavest thou for the books? Hann seldi fyrir tvo n'kisdali alls; 
(e) when it means a??y kind of relation, e. g. Ecki er J>at 
gagnligt fyrir born, pat er gott fyrir k^rnar. 



200 SYNTAX OF PARTICLES. 

It governs the dat. , (a) in (he meaning of before, in the 
presence of, {coram), e. g. Moyses talaSi fyrir GySingum. 
peir hafa staestu viromg fyrir honum; (b) of those for whom 
anything is intended; e. g. fella er fyrir haendum skrifat. Hol- 
urnar fyrir fraeinu; (c) when used of any hindrance, e. g. Hann 
|>oroi ecki fyrir hundinum. Mao> er hvergi ohultr fyrir dauS- 
anum. Eg gat ecki veriS 1 frigi fyrir honum. 

478. Undir with the ace. has the meaning of (a) until, 
about, of time or number; e. g. f)ao" var komiS undir dagmal. 
It was almost 9 o'clk A. M. undir jol until Christmas. Undir 
f>at not far from that, nearly as much; (b) when it means 
under e. g. Hann fleygfti J>vi undir borSift. 

With the dat. it means (a) rest at a place, e. g. pat 
fannst undir borSinu. That was found under the table. Hann 
la undir ruminu He lay under the bed ; (b) when it means 
under, subordinate to, dependant on, e. g. pat er ecki undir 
fm konu't, ek vil ecki eiga undir fvi. Eg a ecki undir 
honum etc. 

479. Yfir governs the ace. when it denotes (a) motion 
to a place; e. g. Hann festi f>at upp yfir dyrnar He fastened 
that up oner the door. Hann hljop (stock) yfir garomn. He 
ran {sprang) over the fence. Sa domr man ganga yfir alia; 
(b) when it means more than, over, e. g. Hann svaf aldrei 
yfir sex stundir, He never slept over six hours. Hann lofar 
yfir sig; (c) when it means about, concerning, e. g. utlegging 
yfir textann. Exposition of the text. Registur yfir salmalogin 
Register of the Psalmtunes. 

It governs the dat. on the other hand, when it expresses 
(a) rest in a place, e. g. fat sitr yfir dyrunum; (b) power, 
sway over, e. g. hafa vald sitt viS yfir einhvorjum, to have, 
show, his power over anything. 

480. The prep, at (a5) alone governs three cases, the 
ace, dat. and genit.; with the ace. it means (a) behind, after. 
(a persons death) e. g. 



SYNTAX OF PARTICLES. 201 

Afl ok eljun, Power and strength, 

allt hit goSa, all the good things, 

er Arngrims synir, which Arngrirrts sons, 

at sik leifSu. left behind them. 

Geek hann meir al f)at, after that he went farther ; and 
on Runic stones; N. N. let reisa stein at feSur sinn; but this 
use is now obsolete; (b) when it has the force of a or ike 
with the comparat. e. g. Eingi mun Eirik kalla at meira mann, 
None will call Eric a better man, Ecki mun hr65r J)inn at 
meiri, J>6tt ek mselti berara. Ma5r at verri. Unless perhaps 
the adj. is more rightly taken as standing in apposition to 
what goes before , and at explained as put absolutely for at 
frvi, 1 J) vi tilliti. 

The common construction of this prep, however is with 
(he dat. It means either (h) to a place, (Germ, nach) e. g. 
J>a5 er laung dagferft fra Skogum aS Odda. pegar J)eir komu 
at honum; or (b) at a place. (Germ, zn) e. g. at Uppsolum 
at TJpsala. Hann bjo at Mosfelli; or (a) away from a place, 
(Germ, her), e. g. a5 austan, a5 utan, aS heiman; (d) of a 
material into which something is changed; e. g. veroa aft 
steini to be turned into stone, gera a5 aungu to make into 
nothing, annihilate, fad kemr honum aS litlum notum. In this 
way many adverbial expressions are formed, e. g. aft gagni, 
at gamni smu for his joke , aS fullu og ollu , aS nauSsyn- 
jalausu, aS forfallalausu, aSniestu, aftvisso, surely, aS eilifu, etc.; 
(e) of a time to come, viz, when the same thing which now 
is, will return again for the next time, e. g. a5 sumri, a5 
vetri, aS morgni, aS ari, i. e. next summer, next winter, 
which are said when the foregoing summer and winter are 
still passing. 

This prep, is construed with the genit. when it means 
with any one, in his house, (Germ, bei), e. g. BoS skyldi vera 
at Mar5ar. peir gistu at Bjarnar, etc. which is perhaps best 
explained by understanding husi or some such word. 

481. Instead of naming a house, or town, and sometimes 
even a country in the nomin. the Icelanders often use a prep. 



202 ELLIPSES. 

with the dat., e. g. sa baer het a Steini that house hight Stone, 
Hann gjorSi bu at bse j)eim , er at Tjorn heitir. par er heitir 
i Ripum, i Arosi. So also, J)ar er heitir 1 Danmorku. In the 
land that is called Denmark. 

482. The prep, is not often repeated in the last clause, 
when it has been already expressed in that which goes before, 
e. g. PortaeSin er oSruvisi en bloSseSarnar i {>vi, at innan i 
hennar pipum iinnust ecki J)ser vaengbloSkur (i. e. valves) sem 
f)eim (i. e. i J)eim). Heraf sja menn J)aS eins stora varuo* J)arf 
a5 bruka i J>vi a5 hindra ecki eSr aptra J)essum svita, sem 
eptir natturligum haetti kemr atS enduSum sjukdomum, sem hinu 
(i. e. i hinu), aS orsaka ecki svita i |>eirra upphafi. 



CHAPTER XIX. 



Of Ellipses. 



483. A word is often omitted in a construction when it 
is so common as to be easily understood. This takes place 
with kostr, choice, alternative, resource, e. g. Ok er sa til, at 
sigla undan, The only choice is to sail away. Sa mun mi 
grsenstr at segja satt. Now the best (resource) will be to speak 
the truth 

484. The third pers. of the verb is often used without 
a subject, when this is unknown , unimportant, or easy to 
supply; e. g. Sva segi'r i Voluspa (viz skaldit). This takes 
place in particular, when the same subject has been shortly 
before expressed; e. g. Margir eru svo fatsekir, a5 bagt eiga 
me5 a5 kosta uppa viSar-kaup. The unimportant pron. {>at 
sa , sii , or hann, hun are omitted both as subject and object, 
when the true subj. or obj. which they supply, have been 
already named; e. g. Bjorn setti fram skip sitt ok bjo (viz 
f>at) sem akafligast. SiSan sneiS karkr hofuft af jarli ok hljop 
i brott meo* (viz })at). Si'dan let Olafr konungr leiSa hann i 



ELLIPSES. 203 

brott, og hoggva hofuft af (viz hommi); Even though another 
case be required than that which has been named; e. g. Nock- 
urt hsefi er {36 til fess., og skeSr (viz j>a8) all natturliga. Hun 
grof sig nio> i rumi5, og la viS dauoa (viz henni la viS). 

485. Of verbs vera is most commonly omitted, e. g. 
As trior sag5i Glumi at hautarfjoidi Sigmundar va?ri kominn i 
tun, "enn ek hefi eigi fraleik til at reka (Viz hann) i brott, enn 
verkmenn (viz eru) at vinnn. (Viga-Glum's Saga. ch. VII.) 
Astridr told Glum that Sigmund's cattle were come into the 
fields "But", said she, "I have not strength enough to drive 
them away, and the workmen (are) at work, peir sogou far 
faungin (viz vera), enn fa fraelta (viz vera), er attu, enn 
bruSgumann (viz vera) a kafi. This especially takes place 
after the auxil. verbs mun and skal in the fut. (278), e. g. fa 
mun hann kominn (viz vera) til ASalsteins konungs. Far aptr 
Haleyingr! sa (viz kostr) mun (viz vera) fer hinn bezti. 

Vero"a also is often omitted in a clause , when it has been 
expressed in the one before, though the context may require 
another form than that already used, e. g. verSa |>aer (gind- 
irnar) se sterkari, og ordugra (viz verSr fat) at veita feint 
motstoou. 



FIFTH PART. 

Prosody. 



CHAPTER XX. 

Metres. 



486. The Icelandic poetry does not distinguish itself 
like that of Greece and Rome, by a system of feet but has 
an arrangement of its own, in common with the other old 
Gothic nations. This system consists chiefly (1) in the number 
of long syll., (2) in alliteration. Nearly all Icelandic poems 
are (3) divided into strophes (erendi, visa), which commonly 
contain eight verses or lines (orS, visuoro"). These strophes 
are again divided into two halves (visuhelmingr), and each 
of these again into two parts (visufjorSiingr), which form a 
fourth part of the whole strophe, and contain two verses be- 
longing together, and connected by alliteration. 



Alliteration, 

487. Alliteration (Letter-rhyme) is regarded as the most 
essential part of Icelandic versification, it is found in all kinds 
of verse, and in every age; for some few abortions of modern 
times, in which those laws have been set aside, which the tongue 
and nation, — nay the whole Gothic family — have laid down, 
under the guidance of nature, and undeviatingly followed since 



ALLITERATION. 205 

the earliest times, do not deserve to be taken into consideration. 
The nature of Alliteration is this, that in the two lines be- 
longing together (visu fjorSiingr) three words occur beginning 
with the same letter, two of which must be in the first line, 
and the third at the beginning of the second. These corres- 
ponding initial letters are called rhyme-letters (IjoSstafir*); the 
third and last of these is called the chief letter, (hofuSstafr) 
because it is regarded as ruling over the two others which 
depend on it, these have the name sub-letters (studlar). All 
rhyme-letters must be found in accented syll., and no more 
words in the two lines should begin with the same letter, at 
least no chief word which takes its tone on the first syll. e.g. 

.Farvel /agnaSar Farewell ye fields 

fold ok heilla ! of mirth and bliss. 

The rhyme-letters here are f that in the word fold is the 
chief letter, farvel and fagnaftar on the other hand contain 
the sub-letters. 

Should the chief letter be compounded; especially if the 
word begin with sk, st, sp, the sub-letters must be the same, 
so that in such a case, a simple s, or s with some other cons, 
as a subordinate letter, would be regarded as a fault; but 
this rule is not attended to so strictly with bl, br, gl, gr, 
/?, fr y etc. though it is considered more correct and beautiful 
if the three agree thoroughly in all points. If the verses are 
very short (as in the metre called fornyrdalag) one sub-letter 
only is often found in the first line, e. g. 
Se sp\6ti J)vi If that spear 

er sjoentu vz'Sar spanned by the wide 

^reipar HelvarSar gripe of Hellswarder 
viS ^renitre jafnat, were matched with the pine. 

* This is doubtless the right form of the word which comes from 
ljoS song^ verse , (Germ. Lied}, from which Poets also are 
called ljoSasmiSir {song smiths) \ but this word is commonly 
confounded with hljoSstafr vowel, from hljoo 7 sound , (Germ. 
Lauf) , though the two words are wholly different both in 
meaning and formation. This observation has been communicated 
to me by the learned Icelander Mag. H. Scheving. 



206 ALLITERATION. 

Here only one sub-letter is found in both places, but this 
is compounded (sp, gr,) in both instances, as in the chief 
letter. 

488. Should the chief letter be a vowel, the sub-letters 
must also be vowels, yet all three if possible different, the 
rule being here just the contrary to that laid down for con- 
sonants; e. g. 

Aunepi skal ek so wngri Neer shall I love, 

imx\?L silki-gunni any maid however young, 

exrn, so at «/tar finni hereafter, however she be, 

annarri enn {)ik, svanni! other than thee my maid. 

Here u is the chief letter in the first place , au and u the 
sub-letters, being all different according to the rule. In the 
second place a is the chief letter, e and y sub-letters, being 
again different vowels. The words ek, in the first, and at 
and enn in the last lines, are not reckoned as faults because 
they are unimportant words, and, especially the two first, quite 
toneless; enn on the other hand at the beginning of the third 
line has a tone and might be rendered "henceforth" or "at 
any time", and its vowel is therefore counted as an essen- 
tial sub-letter. 

J and v, which in the old tongue were not distinguished 
from i and u, are not reckoned as forming any hindrance 
against vowel alliteration. Sometimes also h is found before 
one of the sub-letters. 

489. In short verses (chiefly of the metre called fornyr- 
dalag) one or more short and toneless words are often found, 
which are indispensable to complete the meaning, and are 
introduced before the chief syll. in the second line; these the 
Icelanders call malfylling i. e. filling up of the sentence; these 
are never reckoned in the metre of the verse, but considered 
as something as it were apart, e. g. 

Urn arsti'S milda In the mild season 

J>egar ofanfallnir what time rain-showers 

regnskiirir /at a from above falling 



ALLITERATION. '107 

/ond oil groa, make all the field green, 

og sprcttandi blom. and springing flowers 

af Mindi vakir, awake from sleep, 

og J)rutnir knappar and swelling buds 

freySan dag qveSja. hail the wished for day. 

Here in the first couplet o is the chief and a the sub- 
letter; the u in um is not to be counted as any sub-letter 
because it is altogether toneless, while J>egar is a case of 
malfylling and therefore also without tone. In the two next 
lines / is the rhyme letter, in the third couplet bl is the allit- 
erative letter with af for malfylling; and in the fourth |>r with- 
out it. 

490. The sub-letters in the first line have not so definite 
a place as the chief letter, and therefore though short syll- 
ables are sometimes found in them before a long one, they 
are not called actual cases of malfylling; but still these are 
not taken into account , for as a general rule all Icelandic 
verses begin with a long syllable, in other words, they are 
either trochaic, dactylic, or spondaic, and very often of a mixed 
kind, which depends solely on euphony, because the old Norse- 
men , like the present Icelanders, never arranged their verses 
after distinct feet; e. g. in the last quoted strophe, um in the 
first line , and og in the fifth and seventh , are a non-essential 
malfilling of the same kind, or a superfluous addition to the 
metre. In addition in the longer (octosyllabic) kinds of verse 
it is a rule with regard to the sub-letters, that the second 
should stand in the middle, or at least both in the last half 
of the first line; but they are hardly ever placed, the one at 
the beginning, the other at the end of the line; because there 
would then be too great a space between them, making the 
alliteration less plain ; e. g. in an impromptu of Paul Vidalin in 
the name of his brother the Bishop. 

Ecki smackast ^orunum via To my lips wine has no taste, 

visitazian aldrei dvin the visitation never ends, 

Migrinn ftygr ^eim til |)in my mind flies home to thee, 

/yartans allrakaerasta min! dearest of all to my heart! 



208 QUANTITY. 

Here the sub-letters have their proper and common place 
in the two latter lines, in the two former the one which is 
allowed them for the sake of change. 



Quantity. 

491. Long (langar) and short (skammar) syll. are used 
in the same way in poetry, as in prose (30. 52); the only 
difference being that spondees are pronounced somewhat more 
lightly in every day speech, almost like trochees, while in verse 
each separale syll. is heard more clearly and sharply in its 
natural length; e. g. odaudligir deathless, is sounded in daily 
talk almost like two trochees, but in poetry as a spondee and 
trochee, or as two spondees. 

492. In poetry especially in the longer and more regular 
kinds of verse, the following are long, (1) the first syll in 
the word which has the chief tone, or in an essential part of 
compounds, e. g. 6 in odauSligr, y and e in fyrirgefa; (2) 
those syll. which end in a double cons, or two separate cons., 
which answers to the Greek and Roman position, e. g. ofund 
envy, which forms a spondee; (3) those which contain a diph- 
thong, or accented vowel, e. g. tsekifaeri chance, which forms 
two trochees; (4) the chief syll. in dissyllabic flexional or 
derivative endings, e. g. ari, ugr, ligr", aSi, adr, andi. But 
the three last quoted cases are properly doubtful, unless they 
are joined with the one named first. 

Most monosyll. words are doubtful, especially pron. and 
particles, the quantity of which depends on their place and 
weight in the context, e. g. ek, nu, viS, etc.; and also the 
first syll. in comp. or deriv. words, the second syll. of which 
has been the beginning of the chief word before it was com- 
pounded, e.g. osjaldan^ forsilfra; In common talk however it 
is always long, the endings, r, w\ i, u y a, are short; e. g. 
tekr ? fagtir, geisli, valdi, angu, hjarta, reiStlliga. Yet even 
these may be used as long or common if several cons, follow 
immediately after and form a position. 



ASSONANCES. v 209 



Assonances. 



493. Another important part of versification , though not 
extended to all kinds of verse like alliteration and syllabic 
quantity, is Assonance, (Icel. hending, Dansk linierim) or Line- 
rhyme, this is of two kinds, whole and half assonance. Whole- 
assonance (or perhaps consonance Tceh aSalhending) consists 
in the occurrence in one and the same line of two syll, the 
vowels of which and the following cons, agree entirely to- 
gether after the Icelandic manner (54); e. g. sum-ir gum-ar, 
merk-i sterk-a, and the like. It is called half-assonance (skot- 
hending) when the vowels are different, and only the following 
cons, the same in both cases; e. g. in the words stir5-um and 
nor5-an, var5 and for5-a etc. 

The flexional endings r and s after cons, are not reckoned 
as forming part of an assonance, so that e. g. bjarts and hjarta 
are a perfectly correct whole-assonance, and a5r ftySi also a 
good half-assonance. But it must always be clear and inton- 
ated syll. which answer to one another in this way. 

494. Both kinds are commonly used in one and the same 
kind of verse, in such a way as that the first line of the 
couplet, which contains the sub-letters, takes the half-asson- 
ances , the second with the chief letter the whole-assonances, 
and so on throughout the whole strophe, e. g. 

FastorSr skyli /?r5a The king that would be rich 

in men 

fengs&W vera fyengiM, should always keep his word, 

Hafir #eit at r/w/a to break thy plighted faith 

beseems 

hjalftur mognuSr ! f>er aldvi * thee never thou mighty man f 

* The construction is simple, FastorSr skyli firda feng-ssell fengill 
vera. Hjaldur mognuSr! aldri hsefir J)er at rjufa heit. Firdar 
is a poet, word for people, warriors, fengill the same for 
king, and hjaldur for war, strife, mognudr comes from maga 
strength, bellipotens. 

U 



210 RHYME. 

In this there are half-assonances in the first and third 
lines viz orS-r firfr-a, hsefir and rjufa; in the second and fourth 
whole-assonances, feng and Jeng-ill, hjald-ur and ald-ri. 



Rhyme. 

495. Final-rhyme also plays an important part in the Old 
Norse poetry; but like assonance only in certain kinds of verse. 
It has in Icel. the same name as assonance, viz hending, and like 
it is divided into whole and half-rhyme ; the sole difference be- 
tween the two being that the rhyme requires, if it be monosyll. 
that the final cons, should agree, and if it be dissyll. that the 
following final vowels in both words should be also the same, 
which does not come into consideration in the case of asson- 
ances because these are all monosyll.*, though they are most 
often found in dissyll. words. 

Whether the final-rhyme be monosyll. or dissyll., is some- 
times regarded as an immaterial variation which makes no 
change in the melody, e. g. in Skaldhelga-rimr : 

Katla feck i knerri setur 
kaupmenn satu 1 Noreg vetur 
gumnar bjuggu Grsenlands far 
geek hun |>angat sem farmann vat\ 

Ferftast will hun flaustri i 
farmann tok ei skjott a f>w 
st^rimanni stoltar fljoft 
steypti 1 kjoltu miklum sjofS. * 

Here the first strophe begins with dissyllabic, the second 
w r ith monosyllabic rhyme. As an example of half-rhymes. 
I will quote the following strophe out of Stellurimur. 3. 

* Knerri dat. of knorr ship, setur i. e. place, far ship, farmann 
nom. for farmaoi' travelling merchant Flaustri dat. of flaustur 
ship, tok ei skjott a f)vi answered slowly to this, flj65 
woman, the construction is; stoltar fljoo" steypti miklum sj65 
i keltu (a) st^rimanni, kelta i. e. bosom. 



RHYME. 211 

Old , ef skalda-^kjur fae eg 

ecki sparaS, 
mselir, Jegar mitt ser qveriS 
mikiS skald hefir j>etta veriS! 
The folk) if but bombastic words 

I do not spare, 
says, when it my work has seen, 
a poet great this man has been. 

Here the first line is unrhymed, the second, only half as 
long, is on the other hand half-rhymed with the two last, which 
are whole-rhymed, because sparaS has the same cons, at the 
end of each syll. as qveriS and verift, but unlike vowels. 

In old Poetry only the two lines bound together by allit- 
eration rhyme; never as is often the case with us the first 
and the third, and the second with the fourth, or in short 
any other variation, by which the rhymes belonging together 
are separated. 



CHAPTER XXL 

Of the different kinds of verse. 
Division. 

496. In the last chapter we considered the various ar- 
rangements by which the Greek feet were supplied in the 
Old Norse; it is the different employment and connection 
of these, that form and distinguish the several kinds of 
verse, which are very numerous (100 at least being enumer- 
ated), because these arrangements may be almost endlessly 
varied. The Old Norsemen gave each a separate name, but- 
did not divide them into fixed classes, which however is in- 
dispensable in order to obtain a general view of the subject. 

14* 



212 NARRATIVE VERSE. 

Olafsen assumes four head classes, without however giving 
any definite ground of division. Since agreement in sound, or 
a regular repetition of the same sound , constitutes a chief 
feature in the Norse versification, it is best in my opinion to 
adopt three chief kinds of verse in the old poetry, answering 
to as many modifications of this characteristic feature. The 
first has only alliteration, and may be named Narrative verse, 
( fornyrftalag ) because it approaches most nearly to daily 
speech. The second has assonance besides alliteration, and 
may be named Heroic verse (drottqvsefti, in which may be 
included Olafsens third kind toglag), this was chiefly used in 
eulogies on Kings and Saints. The third has rhyme besides 
alliteration, and seems to be most fitly named Popular verse, 
(runhenda), because it is most commonly used in popular songs. 
We will only briefly consider each of these chief kinds be- 
cause it would require far too much space to describe- and 
give examples of each separate variation. 



Narrative Verse. 

497. FornyrSalag is considered as the oldest kind of 
Norse verse; all the songs in the Poetical Edda belong to 
this class. It has also the name of Starkaftarlag, which how- 
ever may perhaps be more rightly considered as the first kind 
of verse under this general class.; it takes its name from the 
old StarkaS, of whom it is said that "Hans qva?5i eru fornust 
|>eirra er menn kunna", (His songs are the oldest of those that 
men know), and under it are comprised several unimportant 
distinctions in the Skalda. It is the freest of all kinds of 
Norse verse, has the longest "malfylling", and often only one 
sub-letter. Its chief characteristic is that each line has two 
long syll., or two resting points for the voice, but some short 
syll. must follow after these. In general one or two short 
belong together, sometimes even three short to one long syll., 
according as euphony may allow. Each strophe has regularly 
eight lines. As an example the 20th strophe of the GuSrunar- 
qviSa in the Edda may serve; 



NARRATIVE VERSE. 213 

Sakna ek 1 sessi / miss at the board 

ok sseingu and in my bed 

miiis malvinar, my friends discourse : 

valda megir Gjuka! this is Gjiikes sons' world 

Valda megir Gjuka Gjiikes sons have wrought 

minu bolvij my mischance , 

systur sinnar their own sisters 

sarum grati. bitter tears. 

i ' It is sometimes also found in irregular divisions of ten, 
twelve, or more lines; e. g. in Rigsmal, or without any proper 
distribution into strophes, e. g. in the Translation of Paradise 
Lost. This kind might be called continuous Starka^arlag. 

498. In this kind of verse the lines may be quite dif- 
ferent , both in length and cadence , without overstepping the 
rule, but since poetry expressed by song requires regularity, 
this freedom has been very rightly restricted by poets. The 
second line of the couplet is the most regular, and has most 
commonly four syll. arranged as two trochees, the first on the 
other hand is either like the second, or has still oftener five 
syll., sounding as a trochee and dactyl ^ though both lines are 
varied with great freedom in StarkaSarlag; but another more 
regular kind of verse in this class has the first of the two 
lines either trisyll.. and all three syll. commonly long, or ends 
at least with a monosyll. intonated word, by which means it 
obtains a cadence quite different from other trochaic lines. 
Olafsen calls this knept, or st^ft i.e. "shortened" fornyrSalag. 
In this kind of verse the Ynglingatal, as w T ell as Hakonar- 
qvi5a, are composed; together with EgiPs Sonar -torrek, and 
Arinbjarnardrapa; e. g. I will quote the 8th strophe of the 
last named, which describes how Egil recieved the head (life) 
of Eric Blodyxa. 

Vi5 |)vi tok; I tooh hold on it, 

en tiru fylgSu but with the gift followed 

sog svart-leit swarthued seas (eyes) 

siSra bruna; of bushy brows, 

ok sa mu8r, and the mouth 



214 NARRATIVE VERSE. 

er mina bar which brought forth 

HofuS-lausn * my heads' ransom 

for hilmis kne. before the lungs 3 knee. 

499. Another very old kind of Fornyr&dag verse, is 
LjoSahattr, which has six lines in each strophe, the two first 
of these, as well as the fourth and fifth, are connected by al- 
literation, and are altogether of the same character as those 
in StarkaSarlag; but the third and sixth are isolated, and 
have another cadence, and at least two rhyme letters; they 
have also most commonly three resting points, pauses, or 
long syll. , besides the accompanying short ones, e. g. the 
45th strophe out of Hafamal: 
Feiztu ef {m #in att, Knowest thou that thou a friend 

hast 
fmnns fm vel truir, whom thou well trustest, 

Ok viltu af honum goit gcia: and willt thou get good from him: 
gefii skaltu vi5 J>ann blanda, thou shallt mingle thy heart with 

him, 
ok $jofom skipta, and exchange gifts, 

/ara at /mna opt. and fare oft to find him. 

The Hafamal, Lokaglepsa, Grougaldur, S61arlj65, and many 
more, are composed in this kind ;of verse. The third (and 
sixth) line may also be altogether like the two preceeding, 
in which case it is also joined to them by alliteration, so that 
it has only one rhyme-letter, which does not answer to the 
fourth line but to the first and second, e. g. 

pat er |)a reynt That is then proved 

er |>u at runom spyrr when thou askest of runes 

enom reginkunnom which every man knows. 

It sometimes happens also that the strophe has nine lines 
or only three; this is however an variation allowed for the 
sake of change and no new kind of verse. 

* This is my emendation which I hope will be allowed to pass 
by Norse philologists. In Eigla hefd is written for hof5, which 
seems only to be an abbreviation wrongly read, and destroys 
both the sense and verse. 



NARRATIVE VERSE, 215 

500. Sometimes StarkaSarlag and LjoSahatfr are mingled 
together in the same poem, e. g. in the Hakonarmal, and 
Getspeki Heidrekskoniings, I will here quote the 7tu and 
8tii strophes of the last named as an example. 

Hverr er sa hinn hvelli, Wlio is the shrill one, 

er geingr harftar gotur, that treadeth hard ways, 

ok hefir hann fser fyrr um farit : and hath trod them before : 

mjok fast kyssir, very close he kisseth, 

ok hefir munna tva, and mouths hath he twain, 

geingr a gulli einu. he stirreth for gold alone? 

Heiftrekr Mngr Now king Heiftrekr 

hyggftu at gdtul think on the riddle! 

God er gdta \in Good is thy riddle, 

gestr Hindi ! thou blind guest! 

getit er \eirrar. yet is it solved. 

Geingr hamar a hammer goeth 

a gl65 Vinar, for the seas glory (gold), 

kveSr vi5 hatt, loud is his voice, 

ok kemr a steSja. as he comes on the stithy. 

The first of these strophes is in LjoSahattr, in its common 
form, but the refrain is in StarkaSarlag; the second strophe 
on the contrary has the refrain inLjoShattr, consisting of thiee 
similar lines, and the actual answer in StarkaSarlag. 

501. These kinds of verse, especially LjoSahattr, answer 
very exactly to the Hexameter of the Greeks and Romans, 
and are beyond a doubt the same verse in their element and 
origin; so that three Icelandic lines go to one according to 
the Greek arrangement *. But both nations have changed the 
original rude form, each after its own way; The Icelanders 
have furnished all the three members with alliteration, the 
Greeks on the other hand have limited the number and posi- 
tion of the short syll. according to a scale of feet. It is in 
consequence of this, that we are neither able always to ar- 
range Fornyrftalag as Hexameters, nor Hexameters as Fornyr- 

* This interesting observation has been communicated to me by 
Prof. Fin. Magnussen 



216 HEROIC VERSE. 

Salag; very often however this may be done without exercis- 
ing the least violence ; e. g. in the verses already quoted, 

Goo" er | gata |)in | gestur | blindi! | getit er | |)eirrar. 

So also in the Edda.* 

Vesaell | maftur ok | illur | skapi | hlser at hvi | vetna. 
Ut skyldi | senda | allar | vsettir | griSa at | biSja. 

As an example of the agreement of the Greek Hexameter 
with the FornyrSalag, the beginning of the Odyssey may serve : 

"Ao^a (Liot evvEKS, n\clyyQ'rj, iizh 

tiovaa, jroXu'r^ojrov, T^diy^q isgov 

6$ fxccXa noKKd, TUToTiied gov BKegcte, 

Hence we may see how idle it is, to seek, like some 
German scholars, the Icelandic assonances in the Latin Hexa- 
meter; when the Hexametr answers to that class of Icelandic 
verse, which never has assonance or rhyme, except in a few 
cases where they have accidentally slipped into the poem. 



Heroic Verse, 

502. This class has a more definite syllabic measure, 
with no "malfylling"; and has thus in general a more regular 
structure , and more evident agreement with the Greek and 
Roman metres. Another main characteristic is assonance, the 
second line of the couplet in particular has commonly whole as- 
sonances, the first sometimes whole, sometimes none, most 
commonly only half assonances. It seems best to divide this 
class into three main kinds, according to the length the lines: 
the first consist of four or five syll. , the second of six, the 
third of eight; for the different position and relation of the 
assonances seems to be a less essential feature. 

503. Those lines are called Toglag, which have less 
than six syll. in each line, and these are again subdivided 
into several variations. Some have all their lines of like 
length: One of these has four syll., two of which are long, 



HEROIC VERSE. 217 

and two short, in such a way that they form two trochees. 
Another has four syll* three of which are long, with con- 
sequently the cadence of a spondee and trochee. A third has 
four long syll. with no short one, unless it be r (ur) that 
enters into the line. 

All these have no kind of malfylling, but they are usu- 
ally linked together with so much art in the assonances, that 
it would be impossible to apply them to poems of any consi- 
derable length ; they are therefore only found in a few separ- 
ate strophes, as curiosities in Sturlusons Hatlalykill. More 
important are the Toglag verses of five syll., in which the 
Rafnsmal is composed, and which is very like Adonic verse, 
except that the middle syll. is always long, so that the first 
foot must either be reckoned as an amphinacer or as a trochee, 
when the second would become a dactyl, being thus an in- 
version of Adonic verse; this kind of toglag never ends in a 
monosyllable. 

Others have lines of uncertain length, being of four or 
five syll., two of which in particular have the chief tone , and 
contain the assonances; this is the Toglag properly so called, 
after which the Knutsrlrapa , and several other laudatory poems 
were arranged. As an example the following strophe of the 
Knuisdrapa may serve: 

Ok bdru i byr Blue sails at the yard 

b\d segl x\6 rd bore with fair breeze 
(dfr var ^oglings for) (dear was the kings journey) 

drelcar landre&a: the ships of the chiefs: 

enn |>eir er Jeomu but the ships that came 

kiliv vestan til, away from the west, 

urn lei§ HftvL glided safe over 

Lmafjarffar hrim Limfjords swell. 

Another very melodious kind of Toglag is quoted by 
Olafsen out of the Skalda, under the name of Haghenda. This 
has lines of unequal length; viz, the first consisting of three 
trochees, and a long syll., the last on the contrary of a spondee 



218 



HEROIC VERSE. 



and a trochee. It is most likely however that no poem of 
any length is to be found in this kind of verse. 

504. Drottqvrefti has three trochees, or properly spon- 
dees in each line; but dactyls may also be used in the two 
first places, e. g. in the following verses out of Njala. ch. 59: 

Her verftr fyraung a \ing\. Here is a throng in the meeting, 

\>6f gengr langt or hofi, the noise goeth far beyond bounds, 

sift man saett meS Jyo'Sum late will atonement be made 

sett; leiSiz mer fyettet: with men; this wearies me: 

raskligra er rekkom better is it for men 

rjoSa vapn i bloSi to redden arms in blood, 

vist tern ek graSinn geysta readily would I still the hunger 

gjar/ia ylgjar harni of the greedy wolfs young. 

In this kind of verse are composed Geisli, Vellekla, 
Bersoglis visur, and many drapur as they are called, of which 
however only a few have come down to us in a perfect state. ; 
and in addition many unconnected strophes in the Sagas, in 
which an important event in life, or a strong emotion excited 
on such an occasion, have been clothed for the sake of keep- 
ing them in memory, and if possible of preserving them ever- 
lastingly. Sometimes also these verses are the inventions of 
the writer of the Saga in order to give his narrative more 
truthfulness. 

505. These loose strophes are often full of artificial and 
overdrawn circumlocutions , together with confusing and arbi- 
trary transpositions of words, because they are for the most 
part to be considered as impromptus, in which the author, 
perhaps into the bargain no poet by nature, has often fallen 
into difficulties. Some of this art belonged also to the taste 
of the age, and a great part of the difficulty must be laid to 
the account of later copyists, who have often not understood 
the poets expressions, and corrupted the text by their care- 
lessness. As a help I may observe (a) that the sense very 
seldom extends itself beyond the four lines which make half 
a strophe; and (b) that at the same time there is often in these 
four a parenthesis, sometimes two, which must first be picked 



HEROIC VERSE. 219 

out and separated when we wish to resolve these verses ; 
(c) that w T e must also collect and lay aside the words which 
belong to a periphrasis; and (d) during all these operations 
pay great care to case and other inflections, as well as to 
the manner in which they are wont to be combined in the 
Old Norse. The neglect of these rules has often misled trans- 
lators, e. g. Geisli 12. (In the 3rd Part of the Heimskringla) 
which runs as follows: 

Sighvatr fra ek at segSi / know that doughty Sighvatr 

soknhvatr komings daSir, sung the lung's deeds , 

spurt hefir old at orti the world has heard how Ottar 

Ottar af gram drdttar: told of the peoples' king: 

|>eir hafa J>engil Msera they that hight first of scalds 

(|)vi er s^st frama) If stari, have sung of Norway's ruler, 

(helgum lyt ek) er heto {for his valour is proved) 

hofuS-skald firar (jo(ii). / bow to the holy (king). 

The construction of the last half is: J)eir, er firar helu 
hofutskald, hafa tystan Msera Jengil ! |>vi er s^st frama (hans) : 
ek \ft helgum jofri. But this has been altogether misunder- 
stood in the Copenhagen Edition, because the parentheses 
have not been distinguished; so that sfst is construed, cont- 
rary (o grammatical rule, with jofri, and lyt (veneror) con- 
founded with htyt (cogor) as will as Msera gen. pi. of Maeri, 
i. e. the province More (as in the following strophes, jprsenda, 
Kauma, H6r5a etc.) with the verb Msera to sing. 

For the rest this verse, which consists of Greek feet linked 
together by assonance and alliteration, cannot be in its nature 
harder either for a poet or reader than our new kinds of 
verse, in which feet are combined with rhyme. 

506. This kind of verse admits of many variations in 
the assonances, as well as in their position and relations, e.g. 
In the LoSbrokarqviSa which has assonance only in the two 
last lines of the strophe, viz; half in the first, and whole in 
the last, which however is not accurately observed. This 
song has besides ten lines in each strophe, of which the first 
is the refrain, and the second serves to connect this with the 



220 



HEROIC VERSE. 



strophe; viz it fills up the alliteration of the refrain, and thus 
belongs to it in mechanical construction, and doubtless also in 
singing, but with regard to meaning it always belongs to the 
strophe itself; e. g. the 24th strophe. 



Hjuggom ver med hjorvi. 
Hitt s^niz mer raunar 
at forlogom fylgjom, 
farr gengr af skop noma, 
eigi hugfta ec Ello 
at aldurlagi mi'no, 
|>a er ec bloSvali brseddac, 
oc bor5 a log keyrftac; 
vitt fengom Ja vargi 
verS i Skotlands fjorfiom. 



We hewed with the sword. 
It seems to me certain 
we follow our fate, 
few fall from the Nomas degree, 
I trowed not that Ella 
should rule oer my death 
as I fattened the ravens, 
and drove oer the sea', 
wide gave we the wolf 



food in Scotlands friths, 

507. Liljulag differs from DrottqvaeSi solely in having 
eight syll. instead of six in each line, that is, it has four tro- 
chaic spondees, which may also be exchanged for dactyls ex- 
cept in the last place. By way of an example, the first stophe 
of the Catholic Ode Lilja, from which the verse has its name, 
is here quoted. 



Almattugr gu5 allra stetta, 
yfirbjofomdi eingla ok |)j6Sa, 

ei Jurfandi staSi ne stundir, 
sla5 haldandi i kyrrleiksvaldi : 
senn verandi uti ok inni, 

uppi ok nion ok Jar i miSju, 

lof se |>er urn aldur ok aefi 

eining sonn l Jrennum greinum! 



God Almighty oer all beings, 
thou that swayest angels and 

peoples, 
needing not time nor place, 
holding state in power of love: 
being at once without and 

within, 
above and below and eke i' 

the middle, 
praise be to thee for ever and 

ever, 
Oneness true in three members. 



* Valr is falcon, but blooValr raven, and is put here in the 
Ace. pi. Braeda to feed (from brad) here stands in l s i pers. 
imperf. 



POPULAR VERSE, 221 



Popular Verse. 



508. Runhenda is more regular than narrative, yet more 
free than heroic, verse: like the first it allows of malfylling, 
yet of a shorter kind , and consists like the latter of tolerably 
regular spondees, dactyls, or trochees, connected by allitera- 
tion and final rhyme. 

The strophes are of eight lines , and each of these com- 
monly of the same length. This class may also be divided 
into several kinds, according to the number of long syll., viz, 
into those which have two, three, or four long syll., or resting 
points. Those with three such are most common, e. g. 

Munat gramr vi5 mik The Mng will not toward me 

(venr hann gjofli sik) {so the scald hopeth) 

(Jess mun grepp vara) spare rings of gold; 

gullhring spara. (to munificence he is wont) 

Segi siklmgr mer Let the Mng tell me 

ef hann heyrSi ger whether he eer heard 

d^rligra brag? a better song? 

|>at er drapulag! that is a drapa-verse! 

Egil Skallegrimson's "Ransom for his head" is in this kind 
of verse, whence it may be seen that it is very old, older at 
least than Christianity in the North. It is needless to adduce 
any examples of the other kinds. 



Refrain. 

509. In the old songs, especially in the drapur, a kind 
of refrain (stef) is commonly found, consisting of two or 
four lines, which belong to a regular strophe, and are only 
repeated at the end of a new division of the song; such a 
division is called stefjabalkr, stefjamal, they were sometimes 
of like, sometimes of unlike length, according to tke natural 
character of the matter. 



222 REFRAIN. 

510. Another kind of refrain is the viSqvrefri. as it is 
called, consisting of two or more lines, separate from the 
strophe, and which are repeated at the beginning or end of 
each strophe, either throughout the whole song, or in some 
portion of it: the refrain was sometimes changed two or three 
times in the same poem; for the rest it is written in all kinds 
of verse, and therefore needs no fresh description. 

511. In strophes ascribed to ghosts, or Gods, or which 
contain anything mysterious, gloomy, and sublime, the last 
line was often repeated with some slight variation. In the 
Skalda a verse of this kind inLjoSahattr is quoted, which has 
the name of galdralag; but it is found in many other kinds of 
verse, e. g. in Njala chap. 79. one is met with in DrdttqvaeSi; 
and in chap. 176. another in Fornyrftalag, where the two last 
lines are repealed , so that it is rather to be regarded as a 
kind of refrain than as any peculiar kind of verse. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

Hinds of Poetry. 

512. The various poems were naturally of quite different 
length; yet they were all, in the Edda at least, unconnected 
songs, each forming a whole in itself; these belong therefore 
to the Lyrical, or Epic branch of Poetry. Of the actual dram- 
atic or didactic the Old Norsemen seem not to have had the 
least idea. 

513. The separate songs consist in general, taking an 
average number, of 30 or 40 strophes, sometimes also 50 or 
60; and some few, to which the poet wished to give an es- 
pecially commanding appearance, contain 100 strophes. It is 
remarkable enough that this, making a total of 800 lines, is 
also the sum of the longest of Homers Rhapsodies, and thus 
seems to be the natural limit which a separate song can not read- 
ily overstep without at once tiring both the poet and reader. 



MODERN POETRY. 223 

514. A song in general, or a lay, is called qvaefti, popu- 
lar songs, fornqvsefti; but these are for the most part, if not 
entirely, translations from the Dansk, and of small poetic 
worth; a magical song galdur, and a bitter personal satire or 
lampoon nift, Laudatory poems were of two kinds; a short 
eulogy, or song of thanks, much the same as a poetical letter, 
was called flockr; it was presented to Earls and Princes, 
but seldom to Kings, because it was thought too insignificant 
for them; it was made up indeed of several strophes but not 
of divisions marked off by refrains : The longer and more state- 
ly kind of these poems were the drapur. Sometimes also 
more detailed songs relating the deeds of departed Princes 
recieved this name; they were commonly in DrottqvseSi or 
Runhenda; and consisted of several divisions separated by a 
refrain; they were also used in honour of God or the saints. 

Of a song in fornyrftalag, the words qvi5a, mal, lj65, of 
an elegy the word gratr, are also used in compos, with the 
name of the chief person. The separate verses (visur, stokur) 
have been already mentioned; Psalms properly so called, 
(salmar) and lays (rimur) belong to later times. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

Modern Poetry. 

515. The poetry just described has in the main kept 
itself alive until the present day. In all Icelandic poetry al- 
literation is still found, and the lines are best scanned by the 
long syll. because the strict Greek and Roman metre has never 
been introduced. FornyrSalag is still used in long poems 
without rhyme , for which purpose it seems extremely 
well fitted from its similarity to the Hexameter, its freedom 
and its simplicity ; e. g. in the excellent translation of 
Milton, and Popes "Temple of Fame". Heroic verse is now 



224 MODERN POETRY. 

less frequently used, because all objects for its use have dis- 
appeared from among the people. 

On tho other hand the popular verse has gained the upper 
hand, since it is used in religious poetry, rhymes, and small 
pieces of verse; in short it is the only kind which is is still 
accompanied by song. It is distinguished by alliteration and 
final rhyme, and a trochaic cadence. The following innovations 
have been adopted from foreigners; (a) the having lines of 
unequal length, (b) the having more or fewer lines than four 
in the half strophe, which (c) is reckoned as a whole verse 
in song, (d) to interchange the final rhymes, and not to confine 
oneself to making the two lines connected by alliteration, and 
immediately following one another, rhyme together. One kind 
in particular has become general having six lined verses, with 
four long syll. in each line; the first line rhymes with the 
third, the second with the fourth, and the two last with each 
other. As an example I will quote a passage from Eggert 
Olafsens' didactico descriptive poem, BunaSarbalkr (on the 
countrylife of Iceland), which has been translated into Dansk 
verse by Prof. Magnusson; viz the beginning of the 3<"<* song. 

Vaent er at kunna vel aS bua, 
vel aS fara meS herrans gjof, 

hans verkum ser i hag aS sniia 
honum Jacka fyrir utan tof, 

enn ser og oSrum gjora gott, 

gleSjast og forsma heimsins spott. 
Fair is it well to keep ones' house, 
well to apply the gifts of God, 
to understand to use his works, 
to give him thanks without delay, 
to do good to ones' self and others, 
to joy, and scorn the world's reproach 

516. Though the words in the tongue begin invariably 
with a long syll. and are thus either trochaic or dactylic, it is 
nevertheless very easy both in Icelandic, and the new Nor- 
thern tongues to throw them as it were into iambics or an- 



MODERN POETRY. 225 

apsests by placing a short monosyllabic word before. This 
occurs also very often in Old writers, but in them the short 
syll. is either "malfylling" or altogether accidental, because 
the Old Norsemen never purposely arranged their verses after 
feet. In New writers , who have accustomed their ear more 
to feet, iambic verses are found though very rarely; e. g. 
the following disjointed strophes of Mr. Attorney Peterson. 

pa eymdir striSa a sorgfullt sinn, 
og svipur motgangs um vanga ri5a, 

og bakivendir f)er veroldin, 
og vellyst brosir a5 fu'num qviSa; 

|>eink allt er knottdtt, og hverfast laetr, 

sa hlo i dag er a morgun graetr. 
Alt jafnar sig. 
When anguish wars in thy heavy breast , 
and adverse scourges lash thy cheeks, 
and the world turns her back on thee, 
and pleasure mocketh at thy pain : 
Think all is round and light to turn, 
he weeps to-morrow who laughs to-day, 
Time makes all good, 

517. The rimur, as they are called, when they are sepa- 
rate, answer to what we call ballads; but in common several 
such belong together and form a great poem, in which the 
life and deeds of some old hero are celebrated; this is thus 
a kind of national Epos, which arose about the time of the 
Reformation, and has maintained itself in great favour among 
the people of Iceland up to the present day. Among many 
such the Ulfarsrimur in sixteen songs are considered best. 
A beautiful satirical poem in this form has been composed by a 
poet still alive, Mr. Attorney Sigurd Peterson, under the title 
of Stellurimur in eight songs. Each song or rima should be- 
gin with an introduction in 8 or 10 strophes ( i. e. half- 
strophes) which is called mansaungr, love song, and is com- 
monly very artificial, being fall of Eddaic periphrases, some- 
times hardly intelligible, and containing most often an invoca- 
tion to Odin or Bragi; sometimes also a kind of connection 

15 



226 MODERN POETRY. 

with the preceeding song. The final verse in each song is of 
the same artificial character. The metre is invariably rimhenda 
with rhyme, yet it is varied so that it is seldom that two 
rimur in the whole poem have precisely the same form of 
verse, and never two following immediately the one after the 
other. By way of example a few verses of the Stellurimur 
are here quoted. 

From the 1st rima. 

Havelborni heyrSu mer 
herra AsgarSs-bua ! (i. e. Odin) 
ef mig styrkja eitt-hva$ fer, 
a Jig skal eg trua 

From the 2nd rima. 

Ecki neinum manni mein 
mm er lyst aS bjofia 
aft skemta mer og durum er 
efniS stirfrra Ijooa. 

From the 3rd r ima (to Odin concerning the hero) 

Veittu honum tvennum tolf 
enn tioast |>rennum 
i hoggi aS steypa Hels ao* inni, 
svo hann ei Ulfari verSi minni! 

From the 4tn rima. 

Vaknid* f)i5, sveinar! vakni5 fno", fljoo"! 
varpiS J)i5 Jmngum rockurmdS! 
skemtan bjooa Skollvaldsker 
er skumandi standa a borSi her. 

i. e. Odins drinking horn which stands foaming on the board, 
that is, the verses which I sing, awakens you and bids you 
be merry. 



SIXTH PART, 
Of the Dialects. 



CHAPTER XXIY. 

Historical View. 

518. All the northern tribes of Gothic offspring, formed 
in ancient times one great people, which spoke one tongue, 
that namely which I have now striven to describe. Even then 
it is natural to suppose, variations in speech were to be met 
with, but the orthography was arranged on the same prin- 
ciples, and these peculiarities in speech were so unimportant, 
as not to deserve the name of Dialects. Even now, when 
the Old Norse has been entirely destroyed and shattered to 
pieces in Scandinavia, the difference between the new tongues 
is scarcely greater than that between the Old Greek Dialects, 
when allowance is made for the fact, that the alphabetical 
system, which was always the same among the Greeks, is 
differently arranged in Swed. and Dansk, e. g. Swed. vill 9 
Dansk vil, Swed. van, Dansk ven, Swed. heist, Dansk bedst, 
hafvet, Dansk havet, ga, Dansk gaa or gaae etc. ; have all 
precisely the same sound however differently they may be 
presented to the eye. 

No such deviations were found in the Old Norse, or if 
any they were very few and indefinite, not distinguished by 

15* 



228 DIALECTS. 

country or people; but in the words themselves and their 
forms the indentity is still more striking. On the older 
Runic stones altogether the same tongue is found in all three 
kingdoms, and in the oldest laws of each people very nearly 
the same. 

This tongue occurs first under the denomination Donsk 
tunga, because Denmark in the oldest times was the mightiest 
kingdom , as it was the first in which the tribes were collected 
and bound together into an united realm; whence also the re- 
ligion of Odin 5 and in all probability along with it the art of 
writing and poetry, spread itself over Sweden and Norway. 
But the Old Norse began also first to decay in Denmark, and 
therefore took the name Norraena, because it was probably 
spoken best and most purely in Norway. This realm was 
also at one time the most powerful in the North, but in it too 
the tongue soon fell into decay, so that already before the 
Union of Calmar it was materially changed both in Sweden 
and Norway; then arose the name islenska, which the tongue 
has kept until the present day. 

519. From the three Northern realms, especially from 
Norway, sprung the Icelanders, and so carried with them the 
old tongue and poetry, both which they cultivated with so 
much care, that in all three countries their superiority in these 
respects was universally acknowledged; kings maintained Ice- 
landic poets at their courts , and caused their histories to be 
written by Icelanders. To this period the great mass of 
histories and poems is to be ascribed, which may be called 
the Classical Literature of Iceland, e. g. The Edda, Heims- 
kringla, Knytlinga, Sturlunga, Njala, Eigla, Gretla, and many 
more, of which more than half still lie hidden in M. S., or 
have been edited without learning, criticism, or taste. * 

* This state of things has happily undergone a great change since 
the work of Rask was written, thanks to the unwearied efforts 
of individual Philologists like him, and the combined exertions of 
that praiseworthy body the Society of Northern Archaeologists 
at Copenhagen. [Translator's note.] 



DIALECTS. 229 

But in Iceland also the Old Norse had its periods. A little 
before the Reformation the Literature and language were at 
their lowest ebb. $ since that event they have been cultivated 
anew, and the last half of the 18th century, and the begin- 
ning of the 19th, have been particularly distinguished by a 
happy striving to approach the purity, simplicity, and taste of 
the old time. To this period belong I ViSalin's Huspostilla, 
who for his pure and nervous style has been called the Ice- 
landic Cicero. Judge ViSalin's legal Treatises, and Commen- 
taries on obscure words in the Old Icelandic Laws, Attorney 
Jon Espolins Continuation of the Sturlunga down to the pre- 
sent day. The writings of the Royal Society for Icelandic 
Literature. Those of the Icelandic Society for the Diffusion 
of Knowledge, among the writers of which Bishop H. Finson, 
and Councillor M. Stephensen, are the most distinguished. The 
new Icelandic Literary Society also which has not yet published 
any original work. Among celebrated Poets, a class of writers 
in which Iceland has never been deficient, the last Catholic 
Bishop may be selected, as prominent in the Later Literature, 
as well as Hallgrimr Petursson, StefTan Olafson of Vallanesi, 
the abovenamed Pall ViSalin and Eggert Olafsson; together 
with the following poets now alive, Sra. J6n"porlaksson , As* 
sessor P. Grondal, Attorney Sigurd Petursson, and Prof. Finnr 
Magnusson in Copenhagen. 

520. From the North the same tongue was spread over 
the Ferro, Orkney, Shetland, and Western Isles, and from 
Iceland to the East Coast of Greenland; but the Old Green- 
land has been now for a long time lost, and since the Scot- 
tish Isles were joined to Scotland, the Old Norse language 
has given way to the New English. On the Ferro Isles a 
Dialect is still spoken, which comes very near to the Icelan- 
dic, but is of little interest, since it has no Literature, except 
some popular songs, which however have not been printed 
up to the present time. * 

* These ballads were published with a Dansk translation by Lyng- 
bye, Randers 1822. 



230 OLD POETIC DIALECT. 

Since therefore the language of the three Northern realms 
has altered itself by degrees, and this period of transition 
seems to belong to the History of the formation of the new 
Scandinavian tongues, and since the old tongue on the Islands 
is either extinct, or become insignificant Dialects without Lit- 
erature. It remains only to consider the Oldest and Poetic 
Dialect of the Old Norse, together with the modern language 
in Iceland itself. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

The Oldest and Poetic Dialect 

521. It has been customary among all nations to retain 
the old tongue longest in poetry, partly perhaps because it 
was familiar to the people in their older songs, partly because 
it gave the diction a kind of venerable appearance, partly 
perhaps for the greater freedom thus gained, by having a 
choice between more words and forms, which indeed might 
be very needful as a counterpoise to the restrictions which 
the construction of the verse lays upon the poet. 

Among the poets therefore most Archaisms are found, for 
it is absurd to suppose that these writers ever ventured on 
changes in their diction altogether arbitrary, which would have 
drawn down on them ridicule instead of admiration. In addition 
most of these poetic idioms are met with in the oldest prose 
writers in Icelandic, or in other kindred tongues, so that both 
classes of writers may be considered under one head, 

522. In old writers are often found: 

o for u in endings, e. g. ttingo, tungor, tungom, kollom, 
kollooom, kollo'dot, kollooo, kolloo", etc. 



OLD POETIC DIALECT. 231 

r for ur essential, e. g. norSr, veSr, akr, vetr, vitr; but not 
often for ur of the pi. from fern, in -a; e. g. sogor 
not sogr for sogur. 

m for <B throughout, where the root form has 6, e. g. boeli 
from bol, beer for baer from bua, bjo, (73). It is 
also confounded wit au and ce which comes from 
a, though wrongly. 

m for e, and cei for ei, e. g. aef, vsela, seiga, seila. 

ey for -b, e. g. geyra, eyx^ eyrindi, gleygyr, steyckr, keyr 
for kjor. 

an for o. For this change see 29. In old M. S. simple o is 
often found for o; in words which are sometimes 
spellt with au, sometimes with o, we may be al- 
ways sure that the right sound it o. 

ang, eng, ing, ong, ong, for ang, eing, ing, ung, aung, and 
eyng , e. g. ganga, lengi, hringr, konongr, fong, etc. 
of which change much has been said above (73,78)* 

o for vd, e. g. orr, ou, oro, koSo, for varr, van, varo, qvaSo. 

The oldest pronunciation of a was a (an), which 

is proved by assonances and rhyme, e. g. 

Skemungagramr hdnum. 

Flestr maSr of frd hvat fylkir vd. 

See farther on this point 13. 
u* t y, for ve, vi, e. g. ondurSr, ondugi, dogurftr, kykr, kyk- 

vindi, tysvar, for ondverSr, ondvegi^ dagver^r, 

qvikr, qvinkindi, tvisvar. So also yrkja (for virkja) 

from verk. 

o for a. Thus the pronounciation a in the new Northern 
tongues, was already a dialect in the oldest times, 
though it is very rarely found in Old Norse wri- 
tings, e. g. o for a a river, (Swed. a) boro for 
baro they bore, fom for fam (Swed. fa) few. 

<e, ce, for jd, jo, e.g. sser forsjar, sjor (Swed. sjo) sea. snaer 
for snjar ; snjor (Swed. sno) snow, raefr and rjafr 



232 OLD POETIC DIALECT. 

roof, slaefu for sljofu Fafnisb. 30. slaeforum for 
sljofad Lokagl. 22. 23. tae5 or te3 for lja5 V61- 
undarq. 16. 

e for 6 and vice versa , e. g. neqvi for nockvi, kerit for 
kjorit, igognom for igegnom, koinr for kemr, (Germ, 
komt) ofri, ofztr, for efri, efstr. 

The vowels a and u often fall away at the end of words 
after another vowel, especially if it be accented, e. g. trja for 
trjaa, bra for braa, etc. Sa gen. pi. for saa, fam for faum, 
Gro for Grou, se for seu, and many more. 

523. With regard to the cons, many peculiarities are 
also found. 

H often falls away before the hard cons., e. g. lutr, Ijop, 
ringr, ok-reinn, nifr> etc. for hlutr etc. , but before j and v it 
never falls away. 

C is often used for k by the Angl. Sax. orthography; 
e. g. Cristr, cor, scip, scegg, fecc, (though not cv for lev, or 
qv) but especially at the end of words , e. g. oc, ec, mic, etc. 
which are now written with g. 

E is often used for J 9 particularly before a and o, after 
the Angl. Sax. fashion, e. g. earn, sealfr, earl, be65a, feorSr 
beorn. 

8 for nn 9 e. g. viSa for vinna, breftr. fiSr, kuftr, etc., of 
which mention has been made above. 

T for 5 at the end of words after a vowel, e. g. hofut, 
kollut, standit upp! 

P for f before a hard cons.; e. g. ellepti , tolpti, J)6r- 
tilpsson. 

p seems sometimes to have been used as an abbreviation 
for dd y and z for 55, e. g. nap-gofugr for nadd-gofugr, (naddr 
is pointy arrow , spear) Gizur, Ozur, Pjazi, bleza etc. 

Besides these, many variations of particular words are 
found, which it is hard to bring under any rule, e. g. glikt? 
glikligt, for likr likligt, gnaga fornaga, ollungis nowoldungis, 



OLD POETIC DIALECT. 233 

skillingr now skildingr, vsetta for vsenta, Girkir for Grickir, 
leyfa for lofa to praise, etc. Sometimes also the assonances 
have compelled the poets to force some words a little , thus 
we find e. g. ata for atta (1 owned) Heimskr. II. ch. 48. lattr 
for latr the lair of seals, heiSengja for heiSingja, riSari for 
riddari. 

524. Inflection itself has also its peculiarities, thus the 
vowel change of a into o is sometimes neglected before the 
ending u, e. g. skjaldo for skjoldu , even in the sing. acc« 
skjald, dat. skjaldi, herjaSu for herjuou etc. 

525. Words in -andi (2nd decl. 122) are often thus de- 
clined in the pi. 

N. A. eigendr or eigendor 
Dat. eigondom or eigandom 
Gen. eiganda. 

and these forms are also used when they stand as actual 
particip. or adj. 

526. Instead of faSir fo<5r also occurs, ace. and dat. fe5r, 
gen. foSurs. From broSir is found in the gen. and dat. brceSr 
(braufr) Volsungaq. 21. and Sturluson's Hak. Adalst. 20. 

527. It has been already remarked (158) that many fern, 
of the 7th decl., especially those of which the vowel is 0, 
took of old ar for ir in the pi., e. g. farar, sakar, gjafar, 
fjaSrar, hallar, attar, etc. as well as that elfr, byrSr, merr, 
heiSr etc. were anciently used for elfa, byrSi, meri, heiSi, (159). 

528. Those words of the 8tu decl. which end in n, s, r, 
assimilate the pi. ending r with the final cons., e. g. 

bon, pi. baenn, gas, pi. gaess, 

brun, pi. br^nn, tonn, pi. tenn. 

In the same way like assimilations are found also at 
the end of other words. (93, 139, 189, 256.) It is however 
seldom that sr within the word becomes ss in the inflection 
of adj., e. g. vissa for visra, fussi for fusri. 



234 OLD POETIC DIALECT. 

529. Adj. in -igt, -ugt, (366) are contracted in old writers 
as well as those in -alt, -ult, and if the characteristic letter 
be a hard cons., the g of the ending is changed into k, e. g. 
oflgir ok astgir (Volusp. 17.) 

Meingar J)3er urftu 
J)6 hinn mattki GuS 
skapti skirliga. (Sol. 10.) 

Even the comparat. and superl. are contracted in Old 
writers, for which see 200. 205. 

530. From the comparat. a peculiar dat. pi. is found in 
-rum, -urum, instead of the unchanging -ri, -ari, e. g. taldr 
me5 hmum stserrum monnum , af minnum sokum, enum slasf- 
orum, etc., which now only takes place in the two irregular 
words fleira and meira in the dat. pi. of the indef. form fleirum 
(meirum) and in the dat. sing, meiru. 

531. As an irregular superl. bazt baztr, is often met 
w r ith for bezt beztr, but not bozt in the fern. 

532. The old forms of the pronouns ec, mic. var etc. 
have been already mentioned, we may remark in addition 
okr (ocr) for ockr, and iS and er in the 2nd pers., for J)iS and 
|>er in the pi., which last forms were doubtless of later origin, 
by the addition of j) from the sing. The Swed. and Dansk 
forms /, as well as the Germ. Ihr, answer to the old form; 
e. g. Hvi i5 iEsir tveir? Lokagl. 19. Ollut er (ye were the 
cause). From hann honum is also found in the dat., fern, 
hon (hon). 

533. It has been already remarked (215) that the dissyl- 
labic possessives are regularly declined in old writers, great 
care must therefore be taken not to confound their fern, with 
the dat. of tke personals, e. g. yckur (vestra amborum), yckr 
(vobis ambobus). 

For mitt, minn. etc. the gen. of the pers. min, J)in, sin, 
are sometimes used unchanged, especially by later poets. 



OLD POETIC DIALECT. 235 

For vart the old poets have another word in all the cases, 
the ending of which begins with a vowel, e. g. osso, ossom, 
ossa, pi. ossir, which is the Germ, unser, [and more especially 
the English us.~\ 

534. From f)etta Jvisa is found in the dat., masc. fersi, 
dat. Jeima. 

535. Of the old relatives hvart, hvarr, and hvat, hvar, 
mention has been already made (220); I will here only add 
an example of hvar in the fem. , viz " hal ber old hvar " Ha- 
fam. 54. For hvat hot is found, at least in compounds, hot- 
vetna any whatever, alL Hafam. 49. and in the masc. hor for hvar 
Solarl. 27. is a variation which is strengthened by comparison 
the Swed. ho, Dansk hvo. 

The old es (for er) is often contracted with other words 
e. g. sas, f)anns, sus, Jars, hvars, for sa er etc. 

536. For nockut old writers often use nockart, nacqvart, 
nackvat. From ecki, engr, ongr, ace. engi, are used in the 
masc; fem. ong, aung, (e. g. SigurSarq. Fafn. 2. 26., and 
Hafam. 99,) 

The negative ending -gi, after a hard cons. -Jci, is also 
compounded with many other words, but never with verbs, 
e. g. hittki, Jatki, hvargi, gen. hvarkis, for hvorugr neither', 
sjalfgi fem. (non ipsa.) pagi, svagi , sefa, or sefagi, never. 
Masc. subst. throw away their r in this case e. g. Ulfgi, 
Loptki, vaettki also vettugi, whence the gen. vettugis, Vol- 
usp. 8. 

537. Most of the peculiarities in the old inflection of 
verbs have been already mentioned, along with the common 
ones, with which they are often confounded; some verbs have 
peculiar obsolete forms or methods of inflection, e. g. gerva, 
styrkva, j>r6ngva, s^ngva, skepja (skapti, skaptr) f)ickja, (in 
all three pers. of the pres. f)icki) tjoa (tjoSi, tffti); instead of 
gera, styrkja, Jreyngja, s^ngja, skapa, Jyckja, tja. And farther: 

skynda skyndi, do skyndr 

hjalpa helpr halp holpinn 



236 



OLD POETIC OIALFCT= 



fregna 


fregn 


frag-o 




freginn 


sveipa 




sveip 




sveipinn 


blikja 


— 


— 


bliko 


— 


blanda 


blendr 


blett 


blendo 


blandinn 


(fryngja) 


M n S r 


})raung 


^rungo 


f)rungiim 


(styngja) 


styngr 


slaung 


slungo 


slunginn 


mala 


melr 


mol-o 




malinn 


skepja 


— 


skop-o 


— 


— 


%ja 


flfv 


flo 


flugo 


frfiSr (ftyinn) 


fljuga 


ftygr 


£16 


flugo 


floginn. 



Springa is also found in the sense of springing, leaping, 
and has then sprang in the iraperf. (Skaldhelgarimor.) pi. 
sprungu, conj. spr^ngvi (Saemundar Edda). Heitr a regular 
present from heita, instead of heitir is also found. (In Orvar- 
odds, and Jomsvikmga Sagas Cod. Perg. No. 7. 4to.) From 
sja set is also met with instead of sjaio", se instead of sja and 
senn instead of sen or seor. 

538. The verbs of the 2nd and 3rd class of the 1st con- 
jug, are often found in old writers with 5 (f>) instead of t, d, 
in the imperf. and past part; e. g. merkSi, J>ek|)i ? glapfji, 
skilSi, dreymSi. In this case / is never doubled, or when it 
is, t or d are always used; e. g. villdi, skylldi, this has 
therefore been an actual variation of inflection. The same 
holds good in derivation, e. g. eycS, fj615 or fjolfti etc. 

539. In the third class, a second, infin. is found with the 
same vowel as the imperf.; e. g. dvala, gla5a, for dvelja, 
gleoja; lama, duna, huga, for lemja, dynja, hyggja are still 
used, and are regularly inflected by the 1st class, 1st conjug. 
For the particip. in -#, -i$r, -£5 see 269. 

540. The imperf. conj. of the 3rd class 1st conjug., and 
of the 2"d conjug. is sometimes found with no change of 
vowel; e. g. ut {)ii ne qvomir for kaemir Lokagl. 27., komia 
for ecki ksemi (Grdttas.) JDrungvi for Jpr^ngvi etc. 

541. From the auxil. verb vera the following variations 
are found in old writers; es for er, 3rd pers. pi. 'ro for ero, 



OLD POETIC DIALECT. 237 

after r or a vowel, imperf. vas, infin. vesa, conj, sja for se 
From this form comes the Icel. vist, stay, entertainment, food % 
The German tongues have also retained the 5 in the verb 
itself. 

542. For the old endings, a in the 1st pers. for i, im in the 
1st pers. pi. for urn, and i, 3rd pers. pi. imperf. conj. for u 
see 271—273. For u, i, instead of um, iti, 05, 274. For the 
composition of the l«t and 2nd pers. pron. with the verb in the 
sing. 275. 277. This last occurs very often in old writers; e.g, 
emk for em ek, vask for var ek, hyck for hygg ek; draptu 
fortu etc. In passives or deponents the 1st and 3rd pers. pron. 
in the ace. mic, sic, is used, the vowel being thrown away 
mc, sc, both in a dat. and ace. sense; e. g. sii eromc lick, 
for su er mer likn, Lokagl. 35.; this takes place especially in 
depon. verbs, thus in an active sense, e. g. ec oumc I fear 
(me), ec sjamc I see, and' is formed like a pi. The simple 
1st pers. of the pi. in w, together with the usual pass, in 
urns, umz, umzt, is also found instead of this, e. g. bjoSum. 
J bid, (otherwise we bid) , ek aetlums / intend, my intention 
is, hoiluSumz, |)6ttum etc. 

The ending sc for sic is besides extended in common 
speech to all the pers., because its origin was forgotten, after 
the vowel had fallen away, and sc, had been changed into z 
or st ; e. g. lata eggjasc, (eggjast) to let himself be egged on, 
hann lagSiso he laid himself down , sasc viS boendr hasca for 
sausc, saust, and this again for sau ser in the dat. 

543. The verbs, like the pron., have a negative ending 
of their own, viz, at (or a if a cons, follow, and t if a vowel 
go before, which is however often neglected). It is added to 
all inflections, except the 2nd pers. pi. in 5, t. In the first 
two pers. of the sing, it is besides united to the pronominal 
ending, though this pron. is commonly repeated, either as an 
independant w T ord, or in a new contraction, e. g. em-k-at 
aint I, I'm not, but commonly emkat ek, emkattak, or emka-k ; 
ert-at-tu thou'rt not; er-at he is'nt; erum-a (eru-t the're not); 
and in the imperf. varca ec, var-attu, var- at, varoma (varo-t). 



238 



OLD POETIC DIALECT. 



The 3«*«i pers. pi. seldom occurs negatively in those cases 
where it might be confounded with the others in a positive 
sense. Farther examples are: 

qveSkat ec, sitca ec, munca ec, seka ec, {>ori-g-a ek 





skallatu, 


£u serat, munattu, 




ver5r-at, 


hni'gra-flygra, 


munat samir-s 




vinna-t 


bita-t, vitu-5 


knego-S 


Pres. Conj 


at ek 


stoovigac 






at {m 


qveljat, at Jm 


qve8ir-a 






skriSi-a 


renni-a, verdit 




at allir 


muni-t 




Imperf. 




mundi-g-a ek, 


hugdattac 




|)U 


skyldira , 


ma?ltira 






na^t 


rauSit sic 






J)orcIu-t 


foro-8. 


Imperat. 


kjos-at-tu, 


gratattu. 


fegjattu 



segit-a Voluspa. 21. 
The Infin. and Particip do not occur with negative forms. 

544. Besides the common auxiliary verbs the poets use 
a number of others, as periphrases for the pres. and imperf. 
the most common are, gera , na , kna , ra5a , vinna , geta , lata 
the five first with the infin. the two last with the past parti- 
cip, e. g. hann gerSi, naSi, knatti, reS, or vann hoggva, or 
hann gat, let hoggvit, i. e. hann hjo he hewed, [something like 
the use of gan in Old Engl, he gan hew]. 

545. In the formation of words the old tongue has very 
few peculiarities. 

-a$r, -ufir masc, is an ending which forms subst. expres- 
sing an agent, e. g. sal-vor5u8r housekeeper, indweller , men- 
glotuSr necklace-destroyer , one who shares out gold, hjaldur- 
mognuftr who is able to carry on war, vigfra-madr a mighty 
man of war. 

-nir, (Swed. ndr in konstndr etc.) is used in many Prop. 
Names, e. g. Skirnir, Sleipnir, SkiSblaSnir, Glitnir., Vitnir a 
wolf etc. 



OLD POETIC DIALECT. 239 

-la for liga, in adverbs is a common contraction in old 
writers, e. g. skjotla hastily, hljoSla softly, stilly, (381). 

A few strengthening prefixes may also be remarked here, 
which seem to have been originally independant words, though 
ihey are now only met with in compos. ; the most impor- 
tant are; 

gin- e. g. ginheilagr right-holy, (Angl. Sax. gin-) 

gamban- e. g. gambansumbl glorious-drink , gambanreifti 
fiercely wrath, gambanteinn holy conjuring rod, (Angl. Sax, 
gomban treasure,) 

fimbul- e. g, fimbulljoS fine song, fimbulfambi a great oaf 
(Dansk en Tjambe). Fimbulvetur the dreadful winter before 
Ragnarock. 

The negative o is often written u in old works, which 
has been retained since in Dansk, e. g. uheill, uvitr, etc. 

546. With regard to Syntax, the frequent ellipses of 
small words may be remarked; e. g, illt qveSa (viz, |>eir or 
menn |>at at) argan eggja. 

HirS eigi fm (viz um) 

Hogna reiSi. 

Oc var5 hinn vorftr 

vestallz (viz at) liggja. 

Ohultir megum (viz ver) her 

yfir-drottna. 

Gengo Jeir (viz, til) fagra 

Freyjo tuna etc. 

547. The prepos. eptir and undir, are often met with on 
Runic stones in the forms ept and und, Til is used, like the 
Germ, zu, to express too much, e. g. heldr til mikill far too 
much, gar zu gross. Of and um are used reciprocally, and often 
added to verbs, sometimes even to other words, as expletive 
or emphatic particles , without any actual change of sense. 
As prepos. they are used both with the dat. and ace. e. g. 
i Gol um Asom gullinkambi etc. In this case the meaning seems 



240 OLD POETIC DIALECT. 

to be over. Of is probably also the root of yfir. Instead of 
fyrir for is also found, which is the root-form, and has been 
kept in Dansk, as also fur and fyri when a cons, follows yr, 
or is found for ur, meSr for meft, viftr for vi5, at, against. 

548. Among the old poetic conjunct, the following de- 
serve to be remarked; allz since, as, (Germ, ah) with the 
indie; siSr that-not with the conj.; heldr for that, with conj.; 
sizt since, after that (Lokagl. 17). The negat. is often ne 
before the verb , as in Angl. Sax. and Russ. , e. g. at £er 
msela ne megaft. 

549. It would take as much space as it would be diffi- 
cult to describe or bring under rule the poetic inversions, be- 
cause they consist in their very nature in departures from 
all rule. As a very common kind I may remark, that ok 
with the last clause of a sentence is very often put before 
that which should be joined to it by the conj., e. g. 

baru yxn oc attu 
enni-tungl, |>ar er gengu 
firir vin-eyar vi'Sri 
vall-rauf, fjogur haufut. 

The construction here is, yxn baru fjogur hofuS oc atta 
enni-tungl, jpar er geingu fyrir vin-eyjar vidri vall-rauf, i. e. 
The oxen bore four heads and eight eyes, {brow-moons), when 
they went before {drew) the wide reft-field of the dear isle. 

550. Besides these grammatical peculiarities the poetic 
language has many verbal variations from the common Icel. 
prose. These consist partly of peculiar words (okend heiti,) 
partly in poetic periphrases (kenningar), drawn, some from 
nature, some from mythology and the oldest Norse and Ger- 
man History. To enumerate and describe these would be to 
write a separate Dictionary. Until such a separate work shall 
bave been compiled, very valuable explanations on the matter 
are to be found in the Skalda, Olafsen's "Norse Poesy", as 
well as in the Index to the Landnama, Njala, Edda, and the 
Solutions of the verses in Eigla. 



241 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

The modern Tongue* 

551 . It has luckily been the custom in late times to approach 
nearer and nearer to the purity simplicity and taste of the 
old writers, both in style and orthography. The Grammar 
indeed was never materially altered since the language receiv- 
ed a settled form in the Sagas; but in the middle Ages the 
Orthography was much corrupted, and at one time threatened 
to ruin the whole structure of the tongue. In order to feel at 
home in the worser M. S. written with German letters, as 
well as in the older Icelandic Editions, it is needful to have 
a knowledge of the most important of these changes, now 
happily laid aside, in the old orthography, which was beyond 
measure suited to the genius of the language, is found in 
good M. S. and in the Copenhagen Editions, and has been 
applied in the preceding pages. 

552. Thus e was used for i in endings, e. g. fader; 
lande, daler, hrafnenn, honden, maklegt, sagde, etc., which 
is however wrong, because e is sounded like a (Engl, a), 
A sound inadmissible in these cases; according to this rule 
we ought to write ven, hemen, etc. 

eig for eg when i follows, e.g. deigi, dat. ofdagr, f)eigja, 
seigja, etc., but in this case g would be redundant, just as if 
we were to write havfa, livfa, etc., where f would be re- 
dundant. Besides by this rule a multitude of words different 
both in origin and meaning would be confounded, e. g. deigi? 
deigr, weak, seigr tough, vegir ways, and veigar drinks in 
the dat. and gen. pi., with many more. 

16 



242 THE MODERN TONGUE 

Double instead of accented vowels, e. g. fee, foor, saa, 
sijda. nuu, though y was never doubled. 

ie for e, e. g. hier, giefa, fiell, together with giae^ kia?, 
for gas, kae, e. g. kiaer, giaefr, etc. 

The first makes it impossible to recognize the word, and 
confuses its position in Dictionaries; the last is altogether 
redundant, since g and k always have the sound of gj, Jcj, 
before ae. 

In the same way ie or ji was used for i (39), and ur for r 
without regard to its being essential or not; e. g. madur, 
brudur, godur_, geingur, nidur, and all such; but that this is 
wrong may easily be shown, e. g. by a comparison with all 
the verbs, which have an actual vowel before r in the 2nd 
and 3rd pers. pres., all these retaining it in the 1st pers., hann 
elskar, ek elska, hann segir, ek segi. Accordingly hann gein- 
gur, tekur, etc., ought to become in the 1st pers. geingu, teku, 
which never happens, but hann geingr, ek geing, hann tekr, 
ek tek, are thoroughly analogous. 

That u is not any essential vowel in this case is plain 
from the fact that words, which otherwise insert j before a, 
e, and z/,, never do so before this ending; e. g. at fremja to 
carry out, farther, ver fremjum, |>er fremiS etc.; but in the 
pres. sing, hann fremr, ek frem, (never hann fremjur). Farther 
this ending never brings about that vowel change within the 
word which u requires, e. g. taka, ver tokum, but hann tekr 
(never tokur). The ending -ur is only right in subst. and 
adj. having essential r, and perhaps in those words of the 
6th dec!., which have u in the ace. pi., together with the pi. 
of fern, in a. 

d for 5 contrary to sound , and the old universal custom 
all over Scandinavia, until the Reformation. 

bl for /7, e. g. abl, gabl; but that this is wrong seems 
clear from those in which f and / meet together by compos- 
ition, e. g. henll plane , at hefla; so also hefja, hafinn, 
hafSir etc. (36). 



THE MODERN TONGUE. 243 

gt or ckt for kt, e. g. agt for ackt or akt, lygt or lyckt 
for lykt, digta or dickia for dikta,, etc.; but the first is a 
Danism which makes against the analogy of vakt, inntekt, etc. ; 
the latter superfluous, because kt forms a position, which al- 
ways makes the preceding vowel short and sharp, gt may 
however be defended on etymological grounds in those few 
cases where the root-form has g without a position, e. g. vigt 
from vega, magt and megtugr from mega, magn, etc. The old 
Norsemen however wrote these words with k, e. g. Bishop 
J6n Areson; 

Ef ek skal daemdr of danskri slekt 
og degja svo fyrir kongsins mekt; 

But in root-forms it should always be writter kt, e. g. prakt, 
lukta, dikta, akta, forakta etc. 

ft for pt, e. g. eftir, aftur, etc. but then we ought also to 
write klifti, kifti, etc. which would make it impossible to re- 
cognize many words. 

The use of Capital Letters for all subst. contrary to all 
old use in Icelandic and most other civilized tongues. 

553. As real improvements on the other hand in the 
later orthography may be remarked, the laying aside of au 
and av instead of b, which make the reading of old books 
very hard; as well as of // in vildi, skyld> aldur, old, and the 
like. Again the distinction of j and v from i and u before all 
vowels, and the abandonment of z for s in many genit., and 
for st in the pass., it being only retained for ts, ds, §s, tts, 
where t, d, S and tt ought not to be heard at all; i.e. chiefly 
in case sk , st or some similar position follow, e. g. gezka, 
islenzkt, bezt, elzt, styzt, and in all 2nd pers. pi. pass., as in 
all supines of the same voice. 

554. In the inflections themselves scarcely any change 
has taken place , which has not been already mentioned. 
Words in -ir of the 5th decl. are now commonly thus de- 
clined (144). 

16* 



244 



THE MODERN TONGUE. 



Singular. Norn. Laeknir. Plural. Lasknirar 

Ace, laeknir. l.x'knira 

Dat. leeknir, laeknirum 

Gen. laeknirs. laeknira. 

But this ending is often interchanged with -art e.g. laekn- 
arar, Iseknurum, etc. 

The word fotr (fotur) is often used in the pi. (faetr), as 
if it were fern, fsetrnar. 

From some masc. suhst. r has been cast away, e. g. in 
the Prop. Names. Fridrek. Hinrik, Isfjoro'; as also in poetry, 
lofSungj ddgling, etc. for lofSiingr, doglingr (king), together 
with mann for ma5r. 

Some fern, especially those in ~ing , taka u in the ace, 
as well as the dat. e. g. gyllingu-na, meyju-na; but the true 
old form gyllmgina, mey-na, may also be used. 

-t in the neut., and in general when it is not radical, but 
merely a final syll., standing after a simple (accented) vowel 
or e, has in the later tongue become 8 (not d); e. g. hiisiS, 
fmS, hvaS? hiS goSa, annaS, nockuS, galiS, haldiS, aft, feS, etc.; 
which change is however hardly perceptible in sound, because 
the old pronun. was with a long and almost toneless vowel, 
e. g. |>at not |>att^ and agrees very well with the Latin id, 
aliud, quod, ad, and the like. This orthography also occurs 
occasionally in the oldest M.S. 

In cases where it is radical ? e. g. fat, net, fit, it is not 
changed, not even if a cons, or diphthongic vowel go before, 
e. g. hvert, snart, fatt ? ljott, lit, etc. The old form of the 
prep. a5, viz, at, is still however retained in certain compounds, 
e. g. athygli, atqvaefti, atvinna, atorka, etc. 

k or c, has, in accordance with t> become g, in the pers. 
pronouns, e. g. eg, mig, J)ig, sig, as also the words ok, og 
mjok, mjog. This too is a scarcely perceptible change in 
sound; because the vowel is also long, so that the old pronun. 
was ak , mek, \ek> sek, ak, by no means eck, mick, ock; 



THE MODERN TONGUE. 



u& 



while the new is with hard $r, ag, eg, meg, ag, not at all aj, 
mej, according to the Swed. pronunciation. This change also 
agrees very well with the Latin ego; eg and mj 6g are found 
besides in the oldest M. S. After a vowel, and at the be- 
ginning of a sentence eg is commonly said. 

Instead of |>enna fennan is now said, and for £etta often 
f)ettaf5, for fmu, f)aug is sometimes heard. 

Some later verbs belong, as in Swed., partly to the 1st, 
partly to the 2nd class f the 1st conjug, e. g. 

J>ena, Jenar, fenti, $ent, J)enaS, 

meina, meinar, meinti, meint, 

forlika, forlikar, forlikaSi., forliktr, forlikaSr. 

From hafa, eg hef, fm, hann hefr, are often used in the pres. 

555. In the formation of words, the following particles, 
at least in careless daily speech, have been adopted from 
other tongues; 

be- e. g. besaekja, bestilla^ begera, behalda, 

an- e« g. antaka, anmerkning, ganga-an, 

for- e. g. forgylla, forsylfra, forsigla. 

-heity neut. pi. e. g. serligheit, VeleSlaheit, HaaeruverS- 

ugheit, Velborinheit, etc. 
-istij masc. juristi, sofisti, qvartisti, etc. 
-fer&ngt, siSferSugt (liferni) rettfei5ugt. 

-era, traktera, koniirmera, reformera , and many more 
(with deep e French e). 

556. All good authors now strive to do away verbal 
Danisms and careless idioms, and to replace them by good 
old j or newly formed and genuine, words, e. g. 

vigtugt by mikilvsegt. bescehja by ssekja heim. 

slutning — alyktan. behalda — halda. 

bokfyrycJejari — prentari folgilla — gylla- 

anmerltning — athugagrein. juristi — lagamaSr. 

reformera — endrbaeta. teolog — guQfraeSismaSr. 



246 THE MODERN TONGUE. 

Should these efforts continue , and be aided by a thorough 
study of the old works , the Icelandic will have lost next to 
nothing of her old glory, but will have won much by greater 
stability in grammatical forms, as well as by the enriching 
of the literature with many excellent poems, treatises, and 
translations on subjects to which the old Norsemen paid 
little attention; e. g. Satires and Plays, as well as by minor 
works on matters of Economy , Natural History , Mathematics 
and Physics. 



EXTRACTS 



IN PROSE AND VERSE 



BY WAY OF PRAXIS. 






EXTRACTS. 249 



Gylfaginning. Ch. 34. P. 33. 

Ulfinn faeddu 1 JEsir heima, oc haf5i Tyr einn djarfleik * 
til at ganga at ulfnum, oc gefa honum mat. En er guorn sa 8 
hversu mikit harm ox 4 hvern dag, oc allar spar 5 savgSu 6 at 
hann inundi vera lagSr til skaSa Jeim; {>a fengu 7 Mait |>at 
ra5 at |>eir gerSu fjotur allsterkan 8 , er J>eir kavlluSu lseding 9 , 
oc baru hann til ulfsins, oc baSu hann reyna afl sitt vi5 fjotr- 
inn: en ulfinum J)6tti ser J>at ecki ofrefli 10 , oc let J)a fara me9 
sem |>eir vildu; it fyrsta sinn er ulfrinn spyrndi vi$, brot- 
na8i 11 sa fjoturr, sva leystiz hann or lsedingi. pvi nsest gerfhi 
ililsirnir annan fjotr halfu sterkara 12 > er J)eir kavlluSu droina 13 , 
oc ba5u enn ulfinn reyna f>ann fjotr, ok tavldu hann verSa 
mundu agsetan mjoc at afli 14 , ef slik storsmiSi 15 msetti eigi 
hallda honum. En ulfrinn hugsaSi at J>essi fjoturr var sterkr 
mjoc, oc J>at meS at honum hafSi afl vaxit si'5an er hann braut 
laeding, kom f>at i hug at hann mundi verSa at leggja sic i 
haettu 16 ? ef hann skyldi frsegr 17 ver5a, oc let leggja a sic 
fjotrinn: oc er iEsir tavlduz bunir 18 , J)a hristi ulfrinn sic 19 , 

1 brought up. 2 daring. 3 the Gods saw. guSin neut pi. 4 ox 
imperf. of vaxa to grow, wax. 5 spar pi. of spa spaedom, sooth- 
saying. 6 savgQu for sogoTi a very favorite mode of spelling in Old 
Norse. 7 fengu 3 rd pers. pi. imperf of fa to take. 8 a very strong 
fetter. 9 laeding i. e. that which overcomes by stealth. 10 not above 
his strength. u broke. 12 half as strong again. 13 droma tight 
squeezing. 14 he would become very famous for strength. 15 stor- 
smioi great smiths' work. 16 thought that he must be ready to ex- 
pose himself to risk. 17 renowned, 18 told him they were ready. 
19 hristi sic shook himself. 



250 EXTRACTS. 

spyrntJi vi5, oc laust 20 fjotrinum a jorSina, sva at fjaerri ilugu 
brotin; sva drap 21 hann sic or droma. pat er siSan haft fyrir 
orStak 22 , "at leysi or lsedingi", eSa "drepi or droma, fa er 
einn hverr lutr er akaflega sottr. 23 Eptir fat ottuftuz 24 iEsir- 
nir at |>eir mundu ei fa bundit ulfinn , fa sendi AllfavSr 25 
svein 26 fann er Skirnir er nefndr, sendimaor Freys 27 , ofan 1 
Svartalfaheim 28 til dverga nockra , oc let gera fjdtr fann er 
Gleipnir heitir 29 . Hann var gjor of sex lutum 30 , af dyn kat- 
tarins 31 , oc af skeggi konunnar, oc af rotum bjargsins 32 ? oc 
af sinom bjarnarins, oc af anda fisksins, oc fogls hraka 33 ; 
oc fottu 34 vitir ei aor fessi tiSindi, fa mattu nu finna skjott 
her savnn daemi 3 % at ei er logit at fer: set munt fu hafa at 
konan hefir eigi skegg, oc engi dynr ver5r af hlaupi 36 kat- 
tarins, oc ei eru rzetr 37 undir bjarginu, oc fat veit triia mm 38 
at jafnsatt 39 er fat allt, er ec hen* sagt fer, fott feir se 40 
sumir lutir er fu matt 41 ei reyna. pa mselti Gangleri 42 : fetta 
ma ec at visu skilja 43 at satt er, f essa lutir ma ec sja, er f u 
hefir nu til daema tekit: en hvernig u var5 fjoturinn smiSaor? 
Har 45 svarar: fat kann ec fer vel segja; fjoturinn var5 slettr 
or blautr sem silkiraema 46 , en sva traustr 47 oc sterkr sem nu 

20 laust imperf. of ljosta to dash; for the government of the 
subst. in the dat. see rule 461. 21 drap imperf. of drepa to strike, 
dash. 22 orStak proverb. 23 sottr hard, toilsome. 24 were afraid. 

25 more properly AlfaSir. i. e. Father of all, a name of Odin. 

26 svein lad Engl, swain. 27 Freyrs' messenger. 28 down from 
above into the home of the Black Elves. 29 hight Gleipnir orGleyp- 
nir i. e. the swallower from at gleypa. 30 six things. 31 footfall 
of cat. 32 root of stone. 33 spittle of bird. 34 fottu for fott f li. 
35 savnn dsemi. neut. pi. for sonn d?emi true proofs. 36 running 
springing. 37 pi. of rot. 38 and my good faith is my witness. 
39 equally true. 40 se 3 rd pi. conj. of vera to be. 4t matt 2 nd pers. 
sing. pres. of mega to be able, see rule 275. 42 Gangleri i. e. the 
way-worn man, the name taken by Gylfi during his visit to Asgard- 
43 to distinguish , understand , Old Engl, skill. 44 how, in what way. 
45 Har, i. e. The High One, the name of one of the three kings 
with whom Gylfi talked in Asgard. ^ The fetter was made smooth 
and soft as a silkenstring. 47 trusty. 



EXTRACTS. 251 

skalltu heyra. pa er fjoturrinn var faeror 48 A'sunum f avck- 
u5u f eir vel sendimanni sitt eyrindi 49 ; fa foru iEsirnir lit 
i vain fat er Amsvartner 50 heitir, 1 holm f ann er Lf ngvi 51 
er kallaor, oc kavlluSu meS ser ulfinn, s^ndu 52 honum 
silkibandit, oc baSii hann slita, oc qvoftu vera nokqvoro 53 
traustara en h'kindi faetti 54 a- vera firir digrleiks sakar , oc 
seldi 65 hverr avSrum, oc treysti nieS handa alii, oc slit- 
naSi ei, en fo qvo5u feir uliinn slita mundo. pa svarar ulf- 
rinn. "Sva litz mer 56 a f enna dregil 57 , sem onga fra?g5 68 mu- 
nac 59 af-ljota; fott ec slita 1 sundr sva. mjott band, en ef fat 
er gert meo* list oc vsel 60 , fott J>at s^niz h'tit, fa kemr fat 
band ei a mina fostr. pa savgSu iEsirnir at hann mundi skjott 
sundrslita mjott silkiband, er hann hafSi fyrr brotit stora jarn- 
fjotra 61 , "en ef fu fser ei f etta band sh'tit, fa muntu ecki 
hraefta mega goSin 6 ~, enda 63 skulum ver fa leysa fie. Ufrinn 
svarar. "Ef f er bindit mic sva at ec faec ei leyst mic 64 , fa 
skollit 65 f er sva at mer mun seint verSa at taka af y5r 
hjalp 66 ; ufiiss 67 em ec at lata f etta band a mic leggja. En 
heldr en per fr^it mer hugar 68 , fa leggi einn hverr havnd 
sina i munn mer at veSi 69 at f etta se falslaust gert. En hverr 
A'sanna sa til annars , oc f otti nu vera tvav vandrseSi 70 , vildi 
engi sina havnd framselja, fyrr en Tfr let fram 71 havnd sina 

48 past. part, of fsera to bring. 49 eyrindi errand; mark the 
dat. and ace. after f acka to thank. 50 Amsvartner i. e. the black 
lake of pain. 51 L^ngvi i. e. sown with heath. 52 syndu showed. 
53 for nockru dat. sing. neut. of nockut. 64 psetti imperf. sing of 
fykja to think, seem. 55 passed it. 56 it seems to me. 57 dregil 
band. 58 no glory, onga ace. sing. fern, for einga. 59 munac i. e. 
mun-a-c I will not. 60 guile. 61 iron fetters. 62 then thou wilt not 
be able to cause the Gods fear. 63 but. 64 so that I cannot get 
myself loose. 65 skollit for skolliS 2 nd pers. pi. pres. from skolla 
to show oneself, to behave. 66 that it will be late to me ere I get 
your help, it will be late ere I have to thank you for your help. 
67 unwilling, loath. 68 rather than ye should doubt my bravery 
69 as a pledge. 70 two evils . a choice of two evils, tvav for tvo. 
71 let forward, put forth. 



252 EXTRACTS. 

liaegri. 7a , oc leggr i niunn lilnnum. En er u'iVimi spyrnir, [>a 
hari5naSi bandit, oc f vi liardara cr hann brautz urn [t\i skarpara 
var bandit* fa hlogo 73 allir nema Tfr, hann let 74 havnd sina. 



Gylfaginning. Ch. 49. P. 63. 

pa maelti Gangleri : hafa nokqvorr meiri tiSindi orSit 1 meS 
Asunum? allmikit frekvirki 2 vann porr i f essi ferS. Har 
svarar. Vera mun at segja fra f eim tiSindum er meira J>6t- 
ti vert Asunum 3 , En fat er upphaf 4 fessar savgu 5 at Baldr 
en goSa dreymdi drauma stora oc haettliga 6 um lif sitt. En 
er hann sag5i Asunum draumana , fa baru f eir saman raS 7 
sin_, oc var fat gert at bei8a griSa Baldri 8 firir allzkonar haska 9 : 
oc Frigg toe svardaga 10 til f ess at eyra n skyldu Baldri elldr 
oc vatn, jam oc allzkonar malmr 12 ? stein ar,, jo rSiiij viSirnir 13 ? 
sottirnir 14 ? d^rin i5 , fuglarnir, eitr 16 ? ormar 17 . En er f etta var 
gert oc vitat, fa var fat skemtun 18 Balldrs oc Asanna at 
hann skyldi standa upp a fingum 19 , en allir aSrir skyldu 
sumir skjota a hann , sumir havggva til 20 ? sumir berja grjdti 21 . 
En hvat sem at var gert sakaSi hann ecki 22 , oc fotti f etta 
avllum mi kill frami - 3 . En er fetta sa Loki Laufejarson, fa 
h'kaSi honum ilia er Baldr sakaSi ecki. Hann geek 24 lil Fen- 

72 right. 73 pret. of at lae or hlse to laugh. 74 lost. 

1 Past. part, of verSa to become, happen. 2 a glorious deed 
wrought with toil, alluding to Thor's vengeance on Midgards 1 worm. 
3 which seemed more worth to the iEsir. 4 beginning. 5 for f es- 
sarar sogu. 6 perilous. 7 rede, counsel. 8 gri5a gen. pi. neut. peace, 
security. Baldri. dat. of the pers. 9 harm. 10 an oath. n spare. 
12 ore. 13 trees. 14 sicknesses. 15 beasts. Germ. Thier. Eng. deer. 
16 poison. 17 worms i. e. snakes, as in the Engl, blind-worm. 
18 the sport. 19 in their assemblies, meetings. 20 hew at him. 
21 throw at him with stones. 22 he took no hurt. ^ great further- 
ing, great gain. 24 imp erf. of ganga to go. 



EXTRACTS. 253 

salar 25 til Friggjar, oc bra ser 1 konu liki 26 : pa spyrr Frigg 
ef su kona vissi hvat iEsir hofftuz 27 at a Jnnginu. Hon sag'Si 
at allir skutu at Baldri ^ oc J>at at hann sakafti ecki. pa mselti 
Frigg. "Eigi munu vapn eSa viSir granda 28 Baldri; ei5a hefi 
ec pegit af avllum J^im." pa spyrr konan: "hafa allir lutir 
eiSa unnit 29 at eyra Baldri ? " pa svarar Frigg. '• Vex viSar. 
teinungr einn 30 firir austan Valhavll, sa er Mistilteinn 31 kail- 
aor, sa J>otti mer ungr at krefja eift'sins. pvi naest hvarf konan 
a hraut 32 ; en Loki toe Mistiltein, sleit upp oc geek til Jungs. 
En HavSr st65 utarlega 33 i mannhringinum , Jm'at u hann var 
blindr; J>a mselti Loki viS hann: hvi sk^tr J>u ecki at Baldri? 
Hann svarar: Jm'at ec se 35 ei hvar Baldr er, oc J>at annat 36 
at ec em vapnlaus. pa mselti Loki: gerSu J)6 i liking an- 
narra manna, oe veit Baldri saemd 37 sem aSrir menn; ec mun 
visa J>er til hvar hann stendr 38 ; skjot at honum vendi J>es- 
sum 39 . Havftr toe mistilteininn , oc skaut at Baldri at tilvisun 
Loka : flaug skotit 1 gognum 40 hann, oc fell hann dauSr til 
jar5ar, oc hefir J)at mest ohapp verit unnit me5 goSum oc 
mavnnum 41 . pa er Baldr var Tallinn, J)a felluz 42 avllum Asum 
orStavk 43 oc sva hendr at taka til hannz ; oc sa hverr til an- 
nars, oc voru allir meS einum hug til J)ess er unnit hafSi 
verkit : en engi matti hefna , J)ar var sva mikill griSa-staSr 44 . 
En J)a er iEsirnir freistuSu 43 at maela , f>a var hitt J>6 fyrr at 
gratrinn 46 kom upp, sva at engi matti avorum segja meS or5- 

25 gen. pi. of Fensalr , i. e. the deep , or nether Halls , the 
Palace of Frigg, the Goddess of the Earth and wife of Odin. 
26 and turned himself into the likeness of a woman. 27 hofSuz at 
used to do, chiefly did, from hofu6\ 28 hurt. 29 granted, given, 
past part, from unna. 30 There grows one tree-twig. 31 mistletoe. 
32 next to that the woman went on her way. 33 without, on the 
outside. 34 because. 35 pres. of sja to see. 36 J)at annat another 
thing, in the next place. 37 honour. 38 I will show thee where- 
about he stands. 39 with this wand. 40 for i gegnum .through. 
41 and that is the greatest mishap that has been done to Gods and 
men, or, that has befallen etc. 42 failed. 43 speech. 44 that was 
so holy a place. gri'(5a-sta5r asylum, sanctuary. 4 * tried. 46 a 
weeping. 



254 EXTRACTS. 

unum frii sinum harmi 47 . Enn OSinn bar j)eim mun verst 
{>enna skaSa i8 , sem hann kunni mesta skyn 49 , hversu mikil af- 
taka oc missa Asunum var i frafalli 50 Baldrs. En er go'Sin 
vitkuouz 51 ? j>a mselti Frigg oc spurSi, hverr sa vaeri meS Asum , 
er eignaz 52 vildi allar astir hennar oc hylli, "oc vili hann 
riSa a helveg 53 ? oc freista ef hann fai fundit Baldr, ocbjoda 
Helju litlausn bi , ef hon vill lata fara Baldr heim i AsgarS. " 
En sa er nefndr HermdSr enn hvati 55 sveinn OSins, er til 
j)eirrar farar vard 56 : pa var tekinn Sleipnir hestr OSins , oc 
leiddr fram, oc steig Hermdor a J>ann hest oc hleypti braut 57 , 



Skaldskaparmal. Ch. 35. P. 130. 

Hvi er gull kallat haddr Sifjar l ? Loki Laufeyjar son 
hafSi £at gert til Isevisi 2 at klippa har allt af Sif; en er pdrr 
var$ jpess varr 3 . Tdc hann Loka oc mundi lemja hvart bein 
i honum % aSr hann svarSi Jess, at hann skal fa af Svartalfum, 
at f)eir skulu gera af gulli Sifju hadd, |>ann er sva skal vaxa 
sem annat har 5 . Eptir |>at for Loki til jpeirra dverga er heita 
Ivalda synir, oc gerSa J>eir haddinn oc SkiSblaSni 6 oc geirin 7 
er 05in atti., er Gungnir heitr. pa veSjaSi 8 Loki hofSi sum 
vi5 Jrnnn dverg er Brockr heitir, hvart brdSir hannz Sindri 
mundi gera jafngdSa gripi frja 9 sem Jessir voru. En er £eir 

47 woe. 48 But Odin as was likely bore this scathe worst of 
them. 49 as he could best judge. 50 falling away, loss. 51 came 
to themselves. 52 gain for his own. 63 and (tins said she he shall 
have) if he will ride on the way to Hell. 54 a ransom. 55 the 
brisk. 56 was ready to undertake the journey. 67 and galloped 
away. 

1 Sif s hair. Sif was the wife of Thor. 2 out of wantonness. 
3 ware. 4 and was about to break every bone in him. 6 which 
shall grow just like other hair. 6 SkiSblaftiir Freys' ship. 7 the 
spear. 8 wagered. 9 three precious things equally good. 



EXTRACTS. 255 

komu til smiSju, f£ lagSi Sindri svinskinn i aflinn 10 , oc baft 
blasa Brock; oc letta eigi n fyrr en hann taeki fat or aflinum 
er hann lagSi 1. En f egar er hann geek or smiSjunni, en hinn 
bles, fa settiz fluga ein a hond honum oc kroppaSi 12 , en hann 
bles sem a$r, far til er smiSrinn tok or aflinum, oc var fat 
golltr 13 , oc var burstin u or gulli. pvi nsest lag5i hann i 
aflinn gull oc ba5 hann blasa , oc hsetta 15 ei fyrr blaestrinum 
en hann qvsemi 16 aptr; geek a braut: en fa kom ilugan oc 
settiz a hals honum, oc kroppaSi nu halfu fastara i7 , en hann 
bles far til er smiorinn tok or aflinum gullhring fann er 
Draupnir heitir. pa lagSi hann jam 1 aflinn, oc baS hann 
blasa, oc sagfti at onytt mundi verSa 18 ef blastrinn felli: fa 
settiz flugan milli augna honum, oc kroppaSi hvarmana 19 , en 
er bloSit fell 1 augun, sva at hann sa ecki, fa greip hann til 
hendinni sem skjotaz 20 , meSan belgrinn lagdiz ni5r, ocsveifSi 21 
af ser flugunni, oc fa kom far smi5rinn, oc sagSi at nu lagSi 
nser at allt mundi on^taz er i aflinum var 22 , fa tok hann or 
aflinum hamar, feck hann fa alia gripina i hendr broSur si'num 
Brock, oc ba5 hann fara me5 til AsgarSz oc leysa vefrjuna 23 . 
En er feir Loki 2i bam fram gripina, fa settuz iEsirnir a 
domstola, oc skyldi fat atqvseSi standaz 25 , sem segSi OSinn, 
porr, Freyr. fa gaf Loki Odni geirinn Gungni, en por haddin 
er Sif skyldi hafa, en Frey Ski5bla5ni, oc sagSi skyn 26 a 61- 
lum gripum, at geirinn nam aldri staSar i lagi 27 , en haddrinn 
var holdgroinn 28 f egar er hann kom a hofuS Sif, en Ski5- 
blaSnir hafSi byr 29 f egar er segl kom a iopt , hvert er fara 
skyldi, en matli vefja 30 saman sem duk oc hafa 1 pung ser ef 
fat vildi. par bar fram Brockr sina gripi, hann gaf 05ni 

10 a swines' skin into the furnace. u not to leave off. 12 stung 
it. 13 a boar-pig. 14 bristles. 15 stop. 16 for ksemi. 17 twice as 
hard. 18 it would be useless. 19 the eyelids. 20 then he laid 
his hand to the place as quickly as he could. 21 brushed away. 
22 and said that now it was nigh but that all that was in furnace 
had been spoilt. 23 settle the wager. 24 feir Loki. i. e. Loki and 
he. comp. rule 438. 25 and that decision was to be abided by. 
26 and told the nature. 27 never missed its aim. 28 would take root 
and grow. 29 fair-wind. 30 fold. 



256 EXTRACTS. 

hrfoginn, oc sagdi at ena niunda hverja nott mundi drjupa af 
honum atta hringar jafnhofgir 31 sem hann; en Frey gaf hann 
goltinn, oc sagSi at hann matti renna lopt oc lavg, nott oc 
dag meirra en hverr hestr, oc aldri varS sva myrkt af nott 
eoa i myrk-heimum 3 % at eigi vaeri serit ljost 33 J>ar er hann 
for, sva \fsti af burstinni: pa gaf hann por hamarinn oc sagSi 
at hann mundi mega Ijdsta sva stort sem hann vildi hvat sem 
firir-vaeri 34 , oc eigi mundi hamarrinn bila 35 , oc ef hannvyrpi 38 
honum til J>a mundi hann aldri missa, oc aldri fljugja sva 
langt at eigi mundi hann ssekja heim hond 37 ; oc ef hann vildi, 
J)a var hann sva litili at hafa matti 1 serk ser 38 ^ en {>at var 
tyti a 39 at forskeptit 40 var heldr skarnt. pat var domr Jk \ Sfa 
at hamarinn var beztr af ollum gripum, oc mest vavrn 44 i firir 
Hrim-jmrsum, oc daemSu j>eir at dvergrinn aetti veSfeit 42 ; fa 
bauo" Loki at leysa hofu5 sitt, dvergrinn svarar,, sagSi at J)ess 
var engi von 43 . Taktu mik J)a, qvao" Loki, en er hann., vildi 
taka hann, £a var hann vifts fjarri 44 ; Loki atti skua, er hann 
rann a lopt oc log. pa ba5 dvergrinn por at hann skyldi,. 
taka hann, en hann geror sva; J)a vildi dvergrinn havggva af 
Loka hofu5% en Loki sagSi at hann atti hofuft en ei halsinn. 
pa tok dvergrinn J)veng 45 oc knif oc vill sti'nga rauf a vavr- 
rum Loka 46 , oc vill rifa saman munnin, en knifrinn beitecki 47 . 
pa ma3lti hann at betri vaeri }>ar air 48 broSur hannz, en jafn- 
skjott 49 sem hann nefndi hann, f)a var J)ar alrinn, ocbeithann 
vavrrarnar; rifjaSi hann saman vavrrarnar, oc reif or aesunum 50 : 
Sa |)vengr er mudrinn Loka var samanrifjaSr heitir Vartari 51 . 

31 of equal weight 32? in the regions oi darkness. 33 light 
enough. 34 he might dash it as hard as he pleased on whatever 
came before him. 35 fail. 36 vyrpi pret. conj. of verpa to throw. 
37 that it would not come back to his hand. 38 in his shirt. 39 but 
that was a fault about it. 40 the haft. 41 and had the greatest 
defence in it. 42 should have the wager. 43 that of this there was 
no hope. 44 far away. 45 thong. 46 and will bore holes in Lolas' 
lips. 47 took no hold on him. 48 awl. 49 quick as thought. 50 and he 
tore through the holes. 61 a word of doubtful meaning perhaps de- 
rived from vavr (varis) a lip. 



EXTRACTS. 257 



Grsenlendi'nga Patt Ch. 4, Antiq. Americ, P. 47. 

pat haffti gerzt til tiftinda meftan a Graenlandi, at porsteinn 
l EireksfirSi hafSi kvongazt 1 ok fengit GuSriSar porbjarnar- 
dottur, er att hafSi porir austmaSr 2 , er fyrr var frasagt. Nu 
ffstibi 3 porsteinn Eireksson at fara til Vinlands eptir liki 
porvalds^ broSur sins, ok bjd 4 skip hit sama, ok valdi bann 
li5 at afli ok vexti, ok hafSi me5 ser halfan fmSja tog manna 5 , 
ok GuSriSi, konu sina; ok sigla i baf, J)egar |>au eru biiin, ok 
or lands^n. pau velkti 6 uti allt sumarit, ok vissii eigi, hvar 
J)au foru; ok er vika 7 var af vetri^ {)a toku |>eir land i Lysu- 
■^Si a Grsenlandi i hinni vestri byg5. porsteinn leitaSi Jjeim 
am vistir^ ok fekk vistir ollum hasetum 8 sinum; en hann var 
vistlaus 9 ok kona hans. Nii voru |>au eptir at skipi tvo nok- 
kurar naetr; f>a var enn ting kristni a Grsenlandi 10 . pat var 
einn dag, at menn kvomu at tjaldi " f)eirra snemma; sa spurSi, 
er fyrir |>eim var 12 , hvat manna vaeri i tjaldinu. porsteiu 
svarar "tveir menn," segir hann, "e5r hverr spyrr at?" "por- 
steinn heiti ek, ok er ek kallaSr porsteinn svartr; en f>at er 
eyrindi mitt hingat, at ek vil bj65a ykkr baSum hjonum 13 til 
vistar til min." porsteinn kveSst vilja hafa umraeSi u konu 

1 Passive of kvonga to marry. 2 whom Thorir the Easterling 
had had to wife. By austmaor Norwegian is meant because that 
country lay east of Iceland. 3 was desirous. 4 got ready. 5 25 
men. see rule 448. 6 velkti pret. of velkja to be tossed about. 
7 one week. The Old Norsemen reckoned the beginning of winter 
from the 14tii of October. 8 rowers. 9 without a lodging. 10 at 
that time Christianity was still young in Greenland. u tent. 13 who 
was their leader. 13 ye two husband and wife, hjon neut. pi. means 
a wedded pair. 14 advice. 

17 



258 EXTRACTS 

sinnar, en hun ba8 hann rafta, ok nu jatar 15 hann ftessu. "p& 
mun ek koma eptir ykkr a morgin meo* eyki 16 , £viat mik 
skortir ekki 17 til, at veita ykkr vist, en fasinni 18 er mikit 
meo* mer at vera, f)viat tvo eru viS |)ar hjon, ~f)viat ek er 
ein{>ykkr mjok 19 ; anann sid" 20 hefi ek ok, enn J>er hafit, ok 
setla ek |>ann f)6 betra er £er hafit." Nu kom hann eptir |>eim urn 
morgininn meS eyki, ok foru |>au meSporsteini svarta til vistar? 
ok veitti 21 hann J)eim vel. GuSriSr var skorulig kona at sja 22 , 
ok vitr kona, ok kunni vel at vera me5 okunnum 23 monnum. 
pat var snemma vetrar , at sott 24 kom i lift porsteins Eireks- 
sonar, ok andaftist f)ar margir forunautar hans 25 . porsteinn 
baS gera kistur at likum J>eirra, er onduSust, ok faera til 
skips, ok biia |>ar urn 26 : "{mat ek vil lata flytja til Eireks- 
fjarSar at sumri 611 h'kin. Nu er J)ess skamt at biSa 27 , at 
sott kemr 1 h^b^li 28 porsteins, ok to kona hans sott fyrst, 
er het Grimhildr; hun var akafliga mikil 29 , ok sterk sem kar- 
lar, en J)6 kom sottin henni undir 30 . Ok bratt 31 eptir j>at tok 
sottina porsteinn Eireksson, ok lagu f)au bseSi senn 31 ; ok an. 
daSist Grimhildr, kona porsteins svarta. En er hun var dau5, 
|>a gekk porsteinn fram or stofunni eptir fjol 32 , at leggja a 
likit. GuSriSr maelti J)a: "vertu litla hn'S i brott 33 , porsteinn 
minn!" segir hun; hann kvaS sva vera skyldu. pa mselti 
porsteinn Eireksson: "me5 undarligum hsetti er mi um hus 
freyju vora 34 , |>viat nu orglast hun upp vid* olnboga 35 , ok 
f)okar 36 folum sinum fra stokki Z7 , ok J>reifar 38 til skua sinna.' 
Ok i J)vi kom porsteinn bondi inn, ok lagSist Grimhildr niSr i 



15 says yea. 16 with draught-horses. 17 for nothing falls short 
to me. 18 tedious, stupid. 19 very self-willed. 20 custom, religion. 
21 treated. 22 GudriSr was a grand woman to look on. 23 strange. 
24 sickness. 25 and many of his fellow-voyagers died. 26 and to 
lay them up there. 27 now it happened after no long time 
28 dwelling-house. 29 hugely big. 20 and yet the sickness mastered 
her. 31 straitway. 31 at once. 32 after a board. 33 be thou but a 
little time away. 34 It goes now after a strange fashion with our 
house-mother. 35 for she props herself up with her elbows. 36 thrusts. 
37 bedstead. 38 feels. 



EXTRACTS. 259 

|>vi, ok brakaSi 39 pa 1 hverju tre 1 stofunni. Nu gerir porsteinn 
kistu at liki Grimhildar, ok fserSi i brott, ok bjo urn 40 ; hann 
var baeSi mikill maSr ok sterkr, ok |>urfti hann pess alls, a5r 
hann kom henni burt af baenum. Nu elnaSi 41 soltin porsteini 
Eirekssyni, ok andaSist hann. GuSriftr, kona hans, kunni pvi 
litt 41 . pa voru pau oil i stofunni. GuSriSr hafSi setit a stoli 
frammi fyrir bekknum 42 , er hann hafSi legit a, porsteinn bonol 
hennar. pa tok porsteinn bondi GuonSi af stolinum i fang 
ser 43 , ok settist i bekkinn annan meo" liana, gegnt u liki por- 
steins, ok taldi um fyrir henni marga vega, ok huggaSi 45 hana, 
ok het henni pvi 4 6 , at hann mundi fara meS henni til Eireks- 
fjaroar meS liki porsteins, bonda hennar, ok forunauta hans; 
"ok sva skal ek taka hingat hjon fleiri, segir hann, per til 
hugganar ok skemtanar 47 ; a hun pakkaSi honum. porsteinn 
Eireksson settist pa upp, ok maelti: "hvar er GuSriSr?" prja 
tima maelti hann petta, en hun pagSi 48 ; pa maelti hun vi5 
porstein bonda : " hvort skal ek svor veita 49 hans mali e5r 
eigi?" hann baS hana eigi svara. pa gekk porstein bondi 
yfir golfit, ok settist a stolinn, en GuSriSr sat i knjam honum; 
ok pa maelti porsteinn bondi "hvat viltu nafni 50 !" segir hann. 
Hann svarar, er stund leio* 51 : "mer er ant til pess 52 y at segja 
GuSri5i forlog 53 sin, til pess at hun kunni pa betr andlati 
minu 54 , pvi'at ek er kominn til goSra hvildastaSa 53 ; en pat er 
per at segja GuSriSr! at pii munt gipt vera fslenzkum manni, 
ok munu langar vera samfarar ykkrar, ok mart manna mun fra 
ykkrkoma^ proskasamt^ bjart okagsett, ssett okilmatvel 56 ; munu 
pit fara afGrsenlandi tilNoregs, ok paSan til I'slandis ok gera bu 
a Tslandi; par munu pit leingi bua, ok muntu honum leingr 
lifa 57 ; pu munt utan fara, ok ganga su5r 58 , ok komo ut aptr 

39 it cracked. 40 and buried it. 41 rose to its pitch. 41 could 
not bear up against that. 42 before the bench. 43 into his arms. 
44 over against. 45 cheered her. 46 and promised her. 47 amusement. 
48 but she held her peace. 49 svor veita, give an answer. 50 name- 
sake. 51 when a time had gone by. 82 I am eager for this. 
83 fate. 84 my death. 55 resting-places. 86 strong, bright and famous^ 
sweet and wellsavoured. 57 and thou Shalt live longer than he. 
88 and go southward, i. e. to Rome. 

17* 



260 EXTRACTS 

til Pslands til bus fnns, ok Ja mun f>ar kirkja reist vera 89 , 
ok muntu Jar vera, ok taka nunnu vigslu 60 , ok |>ar muntu 
andast." Ok Ja hnigr 61 porsteinn aptr, ok var buit urn lik 
hans , ok faert til skips, porsteinn bondi efndi 62 vel viS GuS- 
riSi allt Jat er hann hafSi heitit. Hann seldi urn vorit jorS 
sina ok kvikfe 63 , ok for til skips meS GuSriSi me5 allt sitt; bjo 
skipit, ok fekk menn iil, ok for si'San til EireksfjarSar. Voru 
nu likin jorSuS at kirkju. GuSriSr for til Leifs 1 Brattahli5, en 
porsteinn svarti gerSi bu i EireksfirSi, ok bjo Jar, medan hann 
lifSi, ok Jotti vera hinn vaskasti maSr 64 . 



Porfinns Karlsefnis Saga. Ch. 3. Antiq. Americ. P. 104. 

I' Jenna tima var hallseri 1 mikit a Graenlandi; hofSu menn 
fengit litit fang, Jeir er i veiSiferSir 2 hofSu farit, en sumir 
ekki aptrkomnir. Sii kona var Jar i bygo" 3 , er porbjorg het; 
hun var spakona 4 , ok var kollut litil volva 5 ; hun hafSi att 
ser 9 systur, ok voru allar spakonur, en hun ein var Ja a 
lift, pat var hattr porbjargar um velrum, at hun for at veiz- 
lum 6 , ok buSu Jeir menn henni mest heim, er forvitni var a 7 
at vita forlog sin e5a arferS 8 . Ok meS Jvi 9 at pork ell var 
Jar mestr bondi, Ja Jotti til hans koma at vita, nser letta 
mundi oarani Jessu, sem yfir sloo\ B^Sr porkell spakonunni 
heim, ok er henni Jar vel fagnat, sem siSr var til 10 , Ja er 
vi5 Jesshattar konum skyldi taka 11 . Var henni buit hasseli, 
ok lagt undir hana hsegindi i2 ; Jar skyldi i vera hsensna frSri. 
En er hun kom um kveldit, ok sa maSr er moti henni var 

59 be raised, built. 60 the hallowing of a nun. 61 falls back. 
62 fulfilled. 63 live-stock. 64 the shiftiest man. 

1 Scarcity. 2 to the fisheries. 3 district. 4 spaewife. 5 little 
prophetess. 6 to feasts. 7 who had curiosity. 8 how the year 
would turn out. 9 me'3 Jvi because. 10 as the custom was. u taka 
vi8 to receive. u a cushion. 



EXTRACTS. 261 

sendr, $d var hun sva buin, at hun hafSi yfir ser tuglamot- 
tul 13 blan, ok var settr steinum allt 1 skaut ofan 14 ; hun hafSi 
a halsi ser glertolur 15 , ok lambskinns kofra svartan 16 a hofSi, 
ok vi5 innan kattskinn hvit, ok htin hafSi slaf 1 hendi , ok 
var a knappr 17 , hann var buinn meS mersingu 18 , ok settr 
steinum ofan urn knappinn; hun hafSi um sik hnjoskulinda 19 , 
ok var |>ar a skjoSupungr 20 niikill, ok varSveitti hun Jari 
tofr 21 sin, J>au er hun Jmrfti til froSleiks 22 at hafa 3 hun haf8i a 
fotum kalfskinnsskua loSna 23 , ok 1 Jvengi langa, ok a tin- 
knappar miklir a endunum 24 ; hun haf5i a hondum ser kattskinns 
glofa, ok voru hvitir innan ok loSnir. En er hun kom inn, 
J>otti ollum monnum skylt at velja henni 25 ssemiligar kveSjur; 
hun tok Jvi, sem henni voru menn geojaSir 26 til. Tok por- 
kell bondi i hond henni, ok leiddi hana til Jess saatis, sem 
henni var buit. porkell baS hana Ja renna Jar augum yfir 
hju ok hjorS 27 , ok sva hib^li, Hun var famalug 28 um allt. 
BorS voru upptekin um kveldit, ok er fra Jvi at segja, hvat 
spakonunni var matbuit; henni var gerr grautr a kiojamjolk 29 , 
ok matbuin hjortu 30 or ollum kykvendum, Jeim er Jar voru 
til; hun hafSi mersingarspon 31 ok knif tannskeptan tvihol- 
kaSan 32 af eiri, ok var brotinn af oddrinn 33 . En er borS voru 
upptekin, Ja gengr porkell bondi fyri porbjorgu, ok spyrr 
hversu henni Jikki Jar um at litast^ eSa hversu skapfeld 34 
henni eru Jar hibyli e5a hsettir manna, eSa hversu fljolliga 35 
hun mun vis verSa Jess, er hann helir spurt hana^ ok mon- 
num er mest forvitni at vita. Hun kallast ekki munu segja, 
fyrr enn um morgininn eptir, er hun hafSi aor sofit um ndttina. 

13 a kirtle or mantle laced with ribbons. 14 all down to the 
bosom. 15 glass-beads. 16 a black cap. 17 there was on it a knob. 

18 also messing, Germ, messing, a metallic compound , brass , latten. 

19 a girdle of bark. 20 purse of skin. 21 magic apparatus. 22 witch- 
craft. 23 rough , shaggy. 24 with long strings in them, and at the 
end of these great tinknobs. 25 velja henni to hail her. 26 affected. 
27 family and flocks. 28 of few words. 29 gruel of goatsmilk. 30 the 
hearts. 31 a latten spoon. 32 and a knife of brass with an ivory 
haft surrounded by two rings. S3 the point. 34 pleasing. 35 quickly. 



262 



EXTRACTS. 



En um morgininn at &liftimm degi 86 var henni veittr ea* urn- 
biiningr 37 , sem hun |>urfti at hafa til at fremja seioinn 38 . Hun 
bao* ok fa ser konur, j>ser er kunnu fraeSi 39 fat, sem til seio- 
sins f>arf, ok varSlokkur hetu 40 , en £aer konur fundust eigi; 
|>a var leitat at um bsein, ef nokkur kynni; fa segir GuoriSr: 
"hvarki em ek fjolkunnig 41 ne visindakona 42 , en £6 kendi 43 
Halldis, fdstra mm **, mer a I'slandi fat kvaeor, er hun kal- 
laoi vardlokkur." porkell segir: "fa ertu happfroS 45 ;" hun 
segir: "fetta er fat eitt atferli 46 , er ek a?tla i ongum atbeina 
at vera, fviat ek em cristin kona." porbjorg segir: "sva 
maetti verSa at f u yrSir monnum at li5i her um 47 , en f u vaerir 
fa kona ekki verri 48 enn aSr; en viS forkel mun ek meta 49 
at fa fa luti til er hafa f arf." porkell herSir 50 nu a GuSriSi, 
en hun kveftst gera mundu, sem hann vildi. Slogu fa konur 
bring um hjallinn 51 , en porbjorg sat a uppi; kvao* GudriSr 
fa kvaeSit sva fagurt ok vel, at engi f)6ttist heyrt hafa med* 
fegri rodd 52 kvaeSi kvedit, sa er far var hja. Spakonan fak- 
kar henni hvaeSit, ok kvaS margar f aer nattiirur 63 mi til hafa 
sott, ok fikkja fagurt at heyra, er kvseQit var sva vel flutt, 
"er ao*r vildu vi5 oss skiljast ok enga hlySni oss veita; en mer 
era nu margir f eir hlutir auSs^nir 54 , er aSr var ek duliS ok 
margir aorir 55 . En ek kann fer fat at segja, porkell! at hal- 
laeri fetta mun ekki haldast lengr enn 1 vetr, ok mun batna 
arangr, sem varar 56 ; sottarfar fat, sem a hefir legit, man ok 
batna vanu braSara 57 . En fer, GuSrior! skal ek launa i hond 

36 as the day was going down. 37 preparation. 38 to fulfill her 
enchantment. 39 art. 40 is called varftlokkur. i. e. a charm to draw 
together guardian spirits, from vorSr gen. varSar custos, audlokka 
allicere. 41 skilled in spells. 42 wise woman, i. e. sorceress. 43 from 
at kenna to teach. 44 foster-mother. 45 of lucky wisdom. 46 the 
only matter. 47 for a help in this matter. 48 no worse. 49 ask. 
80 pressed hard. 51 round the raised seat, this word also means the 
pedestal on which the images of the Gods stood. 52 voice. 53 na- 
tures i. e. spirits. 84 plain. 85 which were hid before from me and 
many others. 86 and the scarcity will grow better as the spring 
comes on. 87 the sickness also which has lain on you, will also 
grow better sooner than you think. 



EXTRACTS. 283 

lidsinni j)at 58 , er oss hefir af |)er staftit; |>viat fun forlog em 
mer nii allgloggsae 59 ; fm munt gjaforo* 60 fa her a Graenlandi, 
f)at er saemiligast er, J)6at f)er verSi J>at eigi til langgaeSar 61 , 
|>viat vegar Jnnir liggja ut til Pslands, ok man Jar koina fra 
|>er baeSi mikil sett ok goo", ok yfir Jinum kynkvislum skina 
bjartari geislar, enn ek hafa megin ti! at geta slikt vandliga 
set 62 , enda far |m nu heil ok vel dottir!" Si5an gengu mean 
at visindakonunni, ok fretti Ja hverr Jess, er mest forvilni 
var a at vita. Hun var ok goS af frasognum, gekk f>at ok litt 
i tauma er hun sagSi 63 . pessu naest var komit eptir henni af 
oorum bae; for hun Ja Jangat. pa var sent eptir porbirni, 
fm'at hann vildi eigi heima vera, meSan slik hindrvitni var 
framit 64 , VeSratta batnaSi skjolt, sem porbjorg hafSi sagt. 



Yiga-Gldms Saga. Ch. VL 

Nu er at segja fra utanfero* Glums. pegar hann kom vi5 land, 
for hann uppa Vorz til Vigfuss, ok er hann kom at baenum, sa 
hann Jar mikit fjolmenni ok margskonar skemtan ok leika *. Ok 
Jat Jottiz hann sja, at Jar mundi a ollum lutum stormenska 2 
vera. En Jar sem hannsamarga menn merkiiiga, Ja vissi hann 
eigi , hvar Vigfuss mundi vera fraendi 3 hans. pat mark hafSi 
hann til hans, at hann sa mann mikinn ok vegligan 4 , i ond- 
vegi 5 i skautfelldi 6 blam, ok lek ser at spjoti gullreknu 6 . 
Gekk siftan at honunr, ok qvaddi hann, en hann tok vel qveoju 
hans. Vigfuss spurSi, hvat manna hann vaeri, en hann qvazt 

58 for that help. 59 *quite clear. 60 betrothal, marriage. 61 hap- 
piness for a long time. 62 than I have power to see such things 
accurately. 63 and what she said was not far wrong. 64 when such 
contradictions, i. e. superstitious rites were going on. 

* and many kinds of games and sports. 2 magnificence. 3 kins- 
man. 4 dignified. 5 in the first seat. 6 cloke. 6 with a spear the 
shaft of which was adorned with gold. 



264 EXTRACTS. 

vera I'slenzkr ok Eyfirzkr 7 . pa spurfti Vigfuss at Eyjolfi 
magi 8 sinum ok AstriSi dottur sinni, en hann qvaS hann and- 
auSann, en AslriSur lifir. Vigfuss spurSi: hvat barna feirra 
lifSi? en Glumr sagSi honum til syskina 9 sinna, en si5an sagSi 
hann honum, at far var einn son feirra kominn fyrir hann. 
En er hann sago*i fat , fa rettiz ecki af urn talit viS hann 10 . 
Glumr ba5 hann visa ser til ssetis " \ en Vigfuss qvazt ecki 
vita hvat satt vaeri af f vi , er hann sagSi : ok visaSi honum 
til saetis a hinn oseSra beck utarliga 12 : ok veitti honum litla 
virding. Hann var famalugr ok osiSblendr 13 , fa er aSrir menn 
drucku eor hofSu aftra gledi, fa la hann ok hafoi felld ahofSi 
ser, ok J)6tti hann far fol eilt u . par var veizla buin at vetr 
nottum 15 ok gert Dysa-blot 16 , ok allir skylldu f essa minning 
gera. Glumr sitr i rumi sum, ok gengr eigi til; en er aleid 
qvolldit ir ok menn voru komnir, fa var eigi svo mikil gledi 
sem likligt mundi f ickja fyrir fagnaSar sakir ok vina fundar 18 , 
er far voru margir saman komnir. pann dag er menn hofftu 
komit til bodsins 19 , hafSi Glumr eigi utgengit moti monnum, 
ok baud engum at sitja hja ser, eSa i hans rumi. Ok er 
menn voru komnir undir borS 20 , fa var sagt, at sa maor 
var kominn at baenum meS tolfta mann , er Bjorn het ok 
kallaSr Jarnhaus 21 , hann var Berserkr mikill ok var f vi 
vanr at koma til manboda fjolmennra ok leitaSi far orfta 
vi5 menn, ef nockr villdi fat msela, er hann matti a figgja 23 . 

7 a man of Eyfjord. 8 son in law. 9 of his brothers and sister, 
this word, which is preserved in the Swed. syskon, means all the 
children of the same father and mother. 10 then the conversation 
with him (Vigfuss) was not carried farther. n begged him to as- 
sign him a seat. 12 on the lower bench on the outside. 13 a man 
of few words and averse from conversation. u and he was thought 
there to be a fool. 15 as the winter nights came on. 16 Sacrifice 
to the female Genii, comp. Edda Ssem. III. 317. 17 but when the 
evening was closing in. 18 and the meeting of friends. 19 to the 
bidding. 20 and when men were sat down to the board. 21 Iron- 
skull. 22 a great Baresark , so called from their going to battle 
without defensive armour. 23 which he might pick a quarrel 
out of. 



EXTRACTS. 265 

Ok skoraoi menn til holmgaungu 24 . En Vigfuss baft" f ess , 
at menn skylldi vel stilla orSum sinum. Ok er fat minui 
laeging 25 enn taka meirra illt af honum. Ok hetu menn 
honum g65u um fat. En Bjorn geek i skalann inn, ok leitaoi 
orSheilla vi5 menn 26 , ok spurSi a enn seSra beck enn yzta 
mann, hvart hann vseri jam snjallr honum 27 , en hann qvaQ 
fjaerri fvi fara. Si5an spurSi hann hvern of oSrum, far til er 
hann kom fyrir ondvegit: ymissa 28 orSa leituSu menn ser, en 
J)ar kom niSr 29 at engi kvaz, jam snjallr honum. En er hann 
kom fyrir Vigfuss, fa spuroi hann^ hvar Vigfuss vissi slikra 
garpa vanir 30 . En hann lez eigi vita hans jafningja. pa mselti 
Bjorn: "vel er svarat ok hyggiliga 31 , sem van var,, at fii ert 
virdinga maSr mikiJl, ok gengit leingi at oskum lif fitt, ok 
engi hnecking 32 komit vegs fins ok soma 33 . Nti er fat vel, 
at ek farf eigi annat vid* J)ik at maela en gott eitt; en spyrja 
vil ek fik, ef fu fikizt jamn viS mik?" Hann svarar: "fa er 
ek var ungr ok 1 vikingu 34 , ok vann nockvut til frama, nu 
veit ek eigi hvart ek msetta fa viS fik jamnazt, en nu halfu 
siSr 35 , at ek em gamall ok orvasi." 36 Bjorn sn^r a brott 
fadan, ok ferr utar me5 oorum beck; ok spyrr en, ef feir 
fikjaz jam snjallr honum, en feir qvoouzt eigi jam snjallir 
honum. pa kom hann at far er Glumr la i pallinum 37 . "Hvi 
liggr sja maSr sva" qva5 Bjorn, "en silr eigi?" Sessunautar 38 
hans svara, ok veita honum orSa fulllingi 39 : ok qvaSu hann 
svo ovitran, at ecki mark maetti a fickja, hvat hann maelti. 
Bjorn spyrnir a hann faeti sinum ok maelti, "at hann skylldi 
sitja upp sem aorir menn," ok spurSi: "ef hann vaeri jam snjallr 
honum?" En Glumr qvad* hann ecki furfa at eiga vi5 

24 and he challenged men to single combat, holmganga, so called 
because the combatants used to settle the dispute on some small 
island whence there could be no escape. 25 a less disgrace. 26 and 
demanded fair words of men. 27 whether he were equally brave as 
himself, jam for jafn. 28 different. 29 but it came at last to this. 
30 where Vigfuss knew that such mighty men ( as himself) were to 
be looked for. 31 thoughtfully. 32 hindrance. 33 honour. 34 and led 
the life of a sea-rover. 35 but now much less by half. 36 feeble. 
37 on the bench. 38 his companions on the seat. 39 help. 



266 EXTRACTS. 

sik 40 , ok kvaz eigi vita um snilli hans, "ok vil ek af fvi 41 
engu vid* fik jamnaz, at uta I'slandi mundi sa rnadr kallazt 
fol, sem fann veg laetr, sem fii laetr 42 : en her hefir ek vilad 
alia bezt orSum stilla 43 ." Hleypr upp siSan , ok at honum, 
fm'fr ** af honum hjalminn, ok siSan hnyckir 45 hann upp elldi- 
stocki 46 , ok keyrir a milli herda honum 47 , ok tylr kappinn 48 
Bjorn vi5; ok fegar annat, ok hvert at oSru 49 , svo at hann 
fell; ok fa er hann villSi a faetr faeraz, fa lauzt hann i hofuo" 
honum. Ok let sva far til at hann kom lit fyri dyr. En fa 
er Glumr villdi til ssetis, er Vigfuss kominn a golfit, ok allir 
feir, ok fagnaSi fa vel fraenSa sinum, qvaS hann mi hafa raun 
til gert, at hann var hans settar. "Skal ek nu virda fik sem 
ockr somir 50 :" lezt fat til hafa geingit 1 fyrztunni at honum 
s^ndiz hann eigi brad gerviligr 51 "Villdaek Jess at bida, er 
fu fa?r5ir fik meo* skorungskap 52 i fina aett:" leidir nu hann 
til saetis hja ser. Glumr qvazt f iggja mundu fat saeti f ott 
fyrr vaeri. Annan dag eftir er sagt andlat 53 Bjarnar. Vigfuss 
baud Glumi, at taka riki eptir sik ok virdmg, en Glumr qvazt 
|)iggja vilja, en fara fo ut fyrst til Pslands, at eigi eignaSiz 
|>eir foSr-leifd hans 54 , er hann ann eigi at njdta, qvazt aptr 
munu koma sem fyrst. Vigfuss qvazt setla 55 fat forlog Glums 
at auka sina aett ok soma a I'slandi. At sumri laetr Vigfuss 
biia skip til handa Glumi, ok gefr honum farmin a 56 , ok mikit 
fe i gulli ok silfri, ok maelli: "svo segir mer hugr um at 
viS sjamzt eigi si'San: en enka gripi 57 vil ek fer gefa, felld 
ok spjot ok sverS: er ver hoftim mikinn trunad a haft fraendr 58 ; 
ok meoan fii att gripina, vaentir ek, atfii t^nir eigi, virdingu 59 : 
en fa em ek hraeddr um, ef f li logar 60 f eim." Sidan skiljazt 
|)eir. 

40 that it was no business of his to meddle with him. 41 for 
this. 42 who goes on in the way in which you go. 43 but here I 
have learned best of all to hold my tongue? 44 tears. 45 snatches. 
46 a brand. 47 and dashes it between his shoulders. 48 the champion. 
49 and one (blow) after another. 50 as is also seemly. 51 not suf- 
ficiently manly. 62 boldness. 63 death. 54 his heritage. 55 foresaw. 
66 lading in it. 57 things of rare price. 58 see rule 438. 59 that 
thou willt not lose in honour. 60 if thou partest with them. 



EXTRACTS. 



267 



Hamars Heimt from Saeiimnd's Edda. 



1 . Reidr var |>& Ving-porr 1 
er harm vacnaQi,! 

oc sins hamars 
um-sacnaSi : 
scegg nam at hrista a , 
scavr 3 nam at (tyja 4 , 
re5 Jarftar burr 
urn at £reifaz 5 . 

2. Oc hann |>at orSa 
allz fyrst urn qva5: 
heyro*u nu, Loki! 
hvat ec um-maeli, 

er engi veit 

jaroar hvergi 

ne upphimins: 

A'ss er stolinn hamri 6 ! 



3. Gengo |>eir fagra 
Freyjo tuna, 
ok hann {>at or5a 



allz fyrst um-qvao": 
muntu mer, Freyja! 
fjaSrhams lja r 
ef ek minn hamar 
maettac hitta? 
Freyja qvao": 

4. po munda ec gefa |>er 
f)6tt or gulli vaeri, 

oc f)6 selja 8 
at vasri or silfri. 

5. Flo j>a Loki, 
fjaSrhamr dundi 9 , 
uns 10 for utan kom 
Asa garSa, 

oc for innan kom 
Jotna heima. 

6. prymr sat a haugi u 
J)ursa drottinn I2 , 



* Thor the hurler. 2 his beard he can bristle, scegg for skegg, 
a mode of writing borrowed from Angl. Saxon, and followed through- 
out this song. 3 hea( i. 4 to shake, .conf. Rigsm. 32. 34. 5 Earth's 
son fell to throwing his hands about. 6 the God has been robbed of 
his hammer. Deus est malleo spoliatus. 7 wilt thou lend me (thy) 
feathery suit. 8 hand over. 9 gave a din from at dynja. 10 until. 
11 on a hillock , or mound. 12 Lord of Giants. 



268 



EXTRACTS. 



greyjom 13 smom 
gullbavnd snori 14 5 
oc mavrom 15 sinom 
mavn jafnaSi. 

prymr qvao": 

7. Hvat er meS A'som? 
Hvat er meS A'lfom? 

hvi ertu einn kominn 
i Jotunheima? 

8. I'llt er meS A'som, 
illt er nieS A'lfom, 
hefir pu HlorriSa 16 
hamar um-folginn 17 ? 

9. Ek hefi Hlorrioa 
hamar um-folginn 
atta ravstom 18 

for jorS neSan: 
hann engi maSr 
aptr um-heimtir, 
nema faeri mer 
Freyjo at qvsen 19 . 

10. Flo pa Loki, 
fjaorhamr dundi: 
uns for ulan kom 
Jotna heima, 



ok for innan kom 

A'sa garSa. 

11. Maetti hann por 

mi5ra garSa 20 , 
ok hann pat orSa 
allz fyrst um qva5: 

12. Hefir pu erindi 

sem erfiSi 21 ? 
segSu a lopti 
laung tiSindi: 
opt sitjanda 
savgor um-fallaz 2 % 
oc liggjandi 
tygi um-bellir 23 . 

13. Hefi ek erfiSi 
oc erindi: 

prymr hefir pinn hamar 
pursa drottinn; 
hann engi maSr 
aptr um heimtir, 
nema 24 honum faeri 
Freyjo at qvsen. 

14. Ganga peir fagra 
Freyjo at hitta, 

oc hann pat orSa 
allz fyrst um-qvaS; 



13 hounds, dat. pi. comp. Engl, grey-hound. 14 for sneri pret. 
of siif to twist. 15 horses , Engl. mare. 16 a name of Thor, meaning 
the fierce thunderer, or he that careers in thunder, comp. Edda 
Saem. III. 437. 17 hidden away. 18 eight leagues. 19 Freyja to wife. 
20 Thor met liim in the middle of the yard. 21 hast thou the object 
of the errand as (thou hast) the toil. i. e. hast thou taken thy toil 
to some purpose. 22 fail, are broken off. 23 brings forth lies. 
24 save. 



EXTRACTS. 



269 



Bittu J)ik Freyja 
briiSar lirri, 25 
viS scolom aka 2Q tvav 
1 Jotunheima. 

15. Rei5 varS |>a Freyja 
oc fnasaSi, 27 

allr A'sasalr 
undir bifSiz 28 : 
staucc |>at it micla 
men Brisinga 29 . 
"Mic veiztu verSa 
vergjarnasta 30 
ef ec ek 31 me5 f)er 
i Jotunheima." 

16. Senn voru JEsiv 
allir a f)ingi, 

oc Asynjor 
allar a mali: 
ok af fat reSo 
rikir tifar 32 , 
hve f eir Hlorrifta 
hamar um-saetti. 



17. pa qvaS f>at HeimSallr 

hvitastr A'sa; 
vissi hann vel fram 
sem Vanir aSrir 33 : 
^bindom ver por fa 
bruSar lini,, 
hafi hann it mikla 
men Brisinga!" 

18. Latom und hanom 3i 
hrynja lucla 35 , 

oc kvenvaSir 39 

urn kne fail a, 

en a bijosti 

brei5a steina, 

oc hagliga 

um havfuS typpom 37 ! u 

19. pa qva5 fat porr 

fruSugr 38 A'ss: 
"mic mu no iEsir 
argan 39 kalla, 
ef ec bindaz lset 
bruSar lini." 



25 bind thyself Freyja in bridal veil. 26 drive. 27 snorted. 
28 quaked under. 29 that the great flaming necklace sprang up. How 
Freyja got this famous gaud may be seen at the end of Rasks Edi- 
tion of the Prose Edda pp. 353. 57. 30 fondest of men. 31 pres- 
of aka to drive. 32 the mighty Gods. 33 he knows well before liim 
like other Vanir. These Vanir were a powerful race once at feud 
with the iEsir but afterwards reconciled with them, so that some 
of them were received into the number of the iEsir. Heimdall was 
one of these. 34 hanom for honom. 35 let us make keys ring under 
him. i. e. hanging at his waist. 36 womens clothes. 3T and dress 
his head neatly in a topknot, typpom from at typpa to dress a 
woman's hair up in a peak, from toppr Engl. top. 38 stern. 39 cow- 
ardly. 



270 



EXTRACTS. 



20. pa qvaS fat Loki 
Laufeyjar sonr 

fegi fu, porr 

feirra orSa: 

fegar 40 muno Jotnar 

A'sgarS bua, 

nema f u finn hamar 

fer um-heimtir. 

21. Bundo feir por fa 
briiSar h'ni, 

oc enno mikla 
meni Brisinga; 
leto und hanom 
hrynja lucla, 
oc kvenvaSir 
um kne falla> 
en a brjosti 
breiSa steina, 
oc hagliga 
um havfuS typto. 

22. pa qva5 fat Loki 
Laufeyjar sonr: 

"mun ec ok me5 fer 
ambott 41 vera , 
viS sculom aka tvav 
i Jotunheima." 

23. Senn voro hafrar 
heim um-reknir 42 3 



scyndir at scavclom, 
scyldo vel renna 43 : 
bjorg brotnoSo 44 ? 
brann jorS loga, 
ok 45 OSins son 
i Jotunheima. 

24. pa qvaS fat prymr 
pursa drottinn: 
"standio* upp, Jotnar! 

ok strai'5 becci 46 ; 
nu faeriS mer 47 
Freyjo at qvsen, 
NjarSar dottur 
ur Noatunom. 

25. Ganga her at garSi 
Gullhyrndar kfr, 

oxn alsvartir 
Jotni at gamni 48 ; 
fjol5 a ec meiSma 49 
fj615 a ec menja, 
einnar mer Freyjo 
avant f iccir 50 ." 

27. Var far at qveldi 
um-comit snimma 51 , 
ok for Jotna 
avl framborit: 
einn at uxa ? 
atta laxa 52 , 



40 straitway. 41 female slave. 42 forthwith the he-goats were 
driven home. 43 hurried to the traces (shackles) they were about 
to run well. 44 rocks were shivered. 45 pret. of aka. 46 and strew 
the bench. 47 now bring me. 48 for the Giant's passtime. 49 store 
have I of treasures. 60 of Freyja alone methinks I have want. 
51 that even it was come together early, i. e. the guests met to- 
gether early. 52 eight salmon. 



EXTRACTS. 



271 



krasir 53 allar, 
Jaer er konor scyldo; 
dracc Sifjar verr 54 
said J>rju mjaSar 55 . 

27. pa qva5 pal prymr 
pursa drottinn : 

"hvar sattu bruSir 
bita hvassara 56 ? 
sa-c-a 57 ec bruSir 
bita breiSara., 
ne inn meira mjod* 
mey um-drecka." 

28. Sat in alsnotra 
ambatt for 58 5 

er orS um-fann 
vio* Jotuns mali: 
"at vsetr 59 Freyja 
atta nottom, 
sva var hon oSfus, 
i Jotunheima 60 ." 



fricci mer 6r augom 
eldr of-brenna." 

30. Sat in alsnotra 
ambatt for, 

er orS um-fann 
viS Jotuns mali : 
"svaf vsetr 64 Freyja 
atta nottom, 
sva var hon 65Tus 
i Jotunheima/' 

31. Inn com in arma 65 
Jotna systir, 

hin er briiSfjar 66 

biSja {)or8i : 

"latto J)er af havndom 67 

hringa rauSa, 

ef ])U avSlaz 68 vill 

astir minar, 

astir minar 

alia hylli." 



29. Laut und lino 
lysti at cyssa 6I , 
en hann utan stavcc 
endlangan sal 62 . 
"hvi ero avndott 63 
augo Freyjo? 



32. pa qvao* £at prymr 
pursa drottin, 
"berit inn hamar 
bruSi at vigja 69 , 
leggit Mjollni 
i meyjar kne, 



53 side dishes, dainties. 64 Sifs man i. e. Thor. 55 toree gal- 
lons of mead. 56 bite more keenly. 57 I never saw. 68 the allcun- 
ning slave sat before him. 69 eat naught. 60 so eager was she for 
Jotunheim. 61 he stooped under the veil desirous to kiss. 62 to the 
very end of the hall. 63 angry. Gi slept naught. 65 the dire. 
66 bridal fee. 67 yield from thy hands. 68 obtain. 69 to hallow the 
bride. 



272 



EXTRACTS. 



vigit ocr saman 
Varar hendi 70 !" 

33. Hlo Hlorrtfa 
hugr 1 brjosti, 
er harShugaSr 71 
hamar um-J)ecSi 72 . 
prym drap hann fyrstan, 
pursa drottin, 
oc aett Jotuns 
alia lamol 73 . 



34. Drap hann ina avid no 
Jotna systor, 
bin er bnioTjar 
of-beSit hafgi: 
hon scell um-Iaut 
for scilh'nga 74 3 
en havgg hamars 
for hringa fjol5: 
sva com OSins son 
endr at hamri. 



70 hallow us togethe r with Vars' hand. Var , Var , Vavr , or 
Vor was one of the Asynjor, and ruled over affairs of love; see 
Gylf. 35. 71 hard-tempered. 72 knew. 73 shivered in pieees. 7i she 
got ringing blows for shillings, there is a play upon the words 
here for scilling comes from at skella to ring, chink. 



A Hin a r foniu runir 

Y fe ske ep F 

II ur rain U, V,Y (oj 

V fnns giant p 

1 1 T os mouth (d ) 

K reicT car K 

X kaun swelling K, G 

T kagl kail H t (j) 

r r naud fetters N 

A 1 ar crok A 

I is ice - I, J ( e) 

i sol (knesol) sun, S , Z 

\ t .:... tyr Tyr T, B 

l> hjarkarL birch-mast P , P 

I l^jSr moisture L 

Y ma dr man M 

A yr 1)0 w - r ( ur ) final? (y J 

B Stun&nar runir C Oekta runir 

PR VY\ 1 |(.K) l *l .* 

V Y B G E D P C X JE ■ 

D (iiphthongie vowels E simple vowels 

d \, i.e., ( 'e), i , o , vl , y aei i o u y 

F old characters 

a, ij, (oo) ,11;, ftp), a), £, J p d, f 

d, L, o , d, jj , an, az , f> o, f 


















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Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxid 
Treatment Date: Sept. 2006 



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